Difference between revisions of "Lecture on Epistemology of Cartesian Material Falsehood"
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− | ==<span style="color:fuchsia">''' | + | ==<span style="color:fuchsia">'''Una lectura epistémica de la falsedad material cartesiana'''</span>== |
− | <span style="color:blue">Ezequiel Zerbudis, "Una lectura epistémica de la falsedad material cartesiana," ''Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofia'' 37, no. 2 (2011): | + | An epistemic reading of Cartesian material falsehood |
+ | Ezequiel Zerbudis, "An epistemic reading of Cartesian material falsehood," Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofia 37, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 188–212. | ||
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+ | As we already anticipated, the discussion on the notion of material falsity has a quite variegated tradition, however, I believe that a fairly simple taxonomy can be made of the different positions defended (at least as long as only their characteristics are considered). more general). In my opinion, these could be divided, in the broadest way, between those that could be called, following Kaufmann (2000), metaphysical conceptions of material falsity, and those that could be called, on the contrary, epistemic conceptions. Basically, what distinguishes these two types of positions is that while metaphysical conceptions (which have clearly been the majority in the literature) define the contrast between ideas that are materially false and those that are not based on differences in representative properties. of the ideas, that is, from the supposedly diverse relationships that would occur in these two cases between the ideas (understood as mental modes) and their objects, the epistemic conceptions place the basis of said differences, by the On the contrary, the various ways and degrees in which the subjects possessing these ideas could access their representative properties and, eventually, grasp their content. This contrast between metaphysical and epistemic conceptions is, in our opinion, the most important when evaluating the different positions on how to understand material falsity, so in what follows we will dedicate ourselves above all to studying the relative advantages of these two types of positions. Notwithstanding this, it is also worth noting, if only to somehow complete the picture of the situation given here, that metaphysical conceptions could in turn be divided into two groups, namely, those corresponding to conceptions that we could call narrow and broad of material falsehood. A narrow conception is one that would be held by those who believe that certain ideas are materially false by virtue of the fact that there is a certain mismatch or inadequacy between the supposed positive character of what is presented in the idea, on the one hand, and the supposed negative character (ie, privative) of what is represented by it, by the other (from which it would follow that, while the idea of cold would be materially false, that of heat would not be – given the assumption that the Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
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+ | 192 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 193 cold is effectively the deprivation of heat). On the other hand, those who defend a broad conception consider that the materially false character of an idea derives from the most general circumstance, of which the one outlined when explaining the narrow notion would be nothing more than a particular case, according to which an idea such a thing would represent “a non-thing as a thing” – which can be read, taking into account the significance of this Cartesian turn, in terms of an idea representing something not possible as if it were possible (thus both the idea of heat such as cold would be (or could be) materially false). [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something [lat: cum non rem tanquam rem repraesentant]. Returning in any case to the main contrast between metaphysical and epistemic conceptions that we want to present here, perhaps a consideration of the main texts on which the defenders of these different types of positions base their positions can help to clarify its nature. The textual evidence, in fact, seems to oscillate, particularly with regard to the original presentation of the notion at hand in the third meditation, between favoring one position or the other. Let us consider the central section of the passage in which Descartes first introduces the notion of material falsity (subdivided for later reference)1: [4] and since, since ideas are images, there can be none that does not seem to us to represent something [lat: quia nullae ideae nisi tanquam rerum esse possunt], if it is correct to say that cold is nothing more than a deprivation of heat, the idea that represents it to me as something real and positive will not be false call without reason, and so on other similar ideas (AT VII, 43-4; AT IX-1, 34-5). [1] As for the other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch, they are in my thought with so much darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things, or if they do not me they represent more than chimerical beings, which cannot exist [lat: an ideae, quas de illis habeo, sint rerum quarundam ideae, an non rerum: or whether the ideas I have of them are ideas of certain things, or of non-things] 2. As I said, the different sections of this text seem to oscillate between supporting a metaphysical or epistemic interpretation of material falsehood. For example, Passages [2] and [4] seem to provide fairly good support for various metaphysical readings; In particular, [2] seems to support a broad metaphysical conception, according to which what is distinctive about materially false ideas is that they represent (types of) states of affairs that are ultimately impossible, as if they were possible. (as maintained, paradigmatically, in the conception defended by Field (1993); I return to this below). Indeed, the distinction between res and non res to which the passage alludes in its Latin version corresponds, as made explicit in the French version (particularly in the way in which this distinction appears towards the end of [1]) , with the contrast between possible entities (res: quelques choses réelles) and impossible ones (non res: êtres chimériques, qui ne peuventexister). In particular, what these ideas would represent as possible is that certain sensory qualities, such as redness or heat, were modes or accidents of corporeal substances; being that this is indeed impossible, since such qualities, in the way in which they are phenomenally given, are not the whole phrase 'non rerum' be the genitive plural of 'non res', a non-thing). The presence of the accusative 'non rem' in the following section makes this second reading slightly preferable, in my opinion. 1. I translate the French version, adding in brackets, when it seems relevant, the Latin text and, when this in turn differs considerably from the French text, also its translation. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; The presence of the accusative 'non rem' in the following section makes this second reading slightly preferable, in my opinion. 1. I translate the French version, adding in brackets, when it seems relevant, the Latin text and, when this in turn differs considerably from the French text, also its translation. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; The presence of the accusative 'non rem' in the following section makes this second reading slightly preferable, in my opinion. 1. I translate the French version, adding in brackets, when it seems relevant, the Latin text and, when this in turn differs considerably from the French text, also its translation. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; | ||
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+ | 2. It is not entirely clear to me how the 'non' in the last clause of this passage should be understood; in particular, there seems to be a syntactic ambiguity between assuming that it applies to an elided 'sint', which can be replaced from its explicit presence in the preceding clause, or whether it applies rather to the noun (genitive plural) 'rerum' (so that | ||
+ | 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) | ||
+ | Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
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+ | 194 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 195 more than accidents or modes of a thinking substance and, therefore, sufficiently incongruous with respect to an extended substance to be able to inhere in it. On the other hand, the differences between the two varieties (narrow and broad) that we pointed out above derive from the specific way in which the type of failure in question is explained: in one case, the failure derives from the fact that an idea would present something as possible ( as a res) when in reality it is not (it is a non res); In another, it would be that the idea presents something as positive, when in reality it is not – since it would be nothing more than a deprivation4. [4], for its part, even presenting a more ambiguous wording, seems to give some support to a narrow metaphysical position, according to which, as we saw, the characteristic of materially false ideas would be that they present something that is metaphysically “negative” ( that is, a deprivation) as if it were something positive: in terms of the example presented in this text, what would happen here is that the idea of cold seems to offer the subject a phenomenal character as positive as that presented by the idea of heat (in the sense, I believe, sufficiently intuitive that both are presented in the form of a certain qualitative aspect that is patent and sufficiently distinguishable from others for the subject); As a consequence, if cold is not something positive from an ontological point of view, the idea of cold would be deceptive in a way that the idea of heat would not be – a mode of deception that would be, precisely, that of materially false ideas. Later we will see some difficulties when trying to specify the content of these proposals. Now I would like more | ||
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+ | In any case, beyond the variety of metaphysical position in question, the most important thing to note about them, and which consists precisely in what gives them said character, is that what is considered defective, problematic or misleading of materially false ideas would occur at the level of the relationship between what the idea presents and what it represents (to use in this case the terminology of Wilson (1990)): thus, in [2], it is said that certain ideas are materially false "insofar as they represent what is nothing as if it were something" and in [4], speaking of cold as deprivation, it is also said that "the idea that represents it to me as something real and positive will not be called false without reason.” That is, these passages, which apparently always emphasize whether the representative function of the idea is adequately fulfilled or not, seem to suggest that the problem of material falsity is a problem regarding correspondence (or not). between what an idea appears to represent, that is, the type or degree of reality that it exhibits, so to speak, on its surface, on the one hand, and, on the other, the type or degree of reality of that which, in fact, represents3. By | ||
+ | TRUE; In the latter case, it is about the adequacy between certain ideas (or, more precisely, certain propositional contents encoded in certain ideas) and certain existing objects, or states of affairs; while here the relationship is not thought of as taking place with something existing (Descartes explicitly says that what interests us in this case are rather ways of being true or false that go beyond the relationship with the existing, AT V, 152 ) but with something real (that is, something that could exist). One of the central problems that metaphysical theories of material falsity have consists precisely, as we will see later, in explaining what this type of correspondence or adaptation could consist of. 3. Note that the notion of correspondence or adequacy involved here is not the traditional one linked to the corresponding definition of the 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 4. As we already said, in the present work We are interested, above all, in analyzing in a global way the contrast between metaphysical and epistemic conceptions, and for this reason we are not going to go into greater detail regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the different variants within these groups of positions. However, it should be noted that the narrow metaphysical conception has obvious and, I believe, insurmountable textual problems, which originate, in particular, in the fact that Descartes himself insistently mentions both cold and heat as materially ideas. false (cf., for example, the text [1] cited above in the text). It is true, on the other hand, that in general positions of the narrow type have not been held in the relevant literature, but at most they have been considered as options that should eventually be discarded (cf. for example Wilson 1978, p. 109; perhaps Arnauld also took this reading into account for the same purposes, see the text below [5]); An exception is that of R. Biscia (cf. his 2010), who defends precisely a conception of the narrow type. Among the defenders of broad metaphysical conceptions we can cite Gewirth 1943, Gueroult 1953, Wilson 1990, Field 1993, Alanen 1994 and Brown 2008; On the other hand, although Bolton 1986, Beyssade 1992, and DeRosa 2004 incorporate epistemic elements in the elaboration of their proposals, the general framework in which they do so remains, in my opinion, a metaphysical one. | ||
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+ | Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
+ | 196 E. ZERBUDIS draw attention to the fact that the remaining sections of the cited passage point, on the contrary, in another direction, that is, in the direction of 'epistemic' interpretations, as I have called them above, which It is the type of interpretation I am going to defend here. Note that in [3] it is said that “the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether one or the other are real qualities, or whether they are not” (emphasis mine); That is to say, it does not seem that the notion that we want to define in these passages concerns a certain type of specific relationship that would occur between what is presented and what is represented by some ideas, but rather said notion would consist in the fact that, simply, some Such ideas are presented with such a degree of obscurity and confusion that we cannot even access, so to speak, what is “inside” the idea – in particular, we would not have adequate access to these diverse assumptions. - these aspects of it nor, above all, to the relationship of representation or adaptation that would occur between them. An idea would be materially false, then, by virtue of the difficulty it creates for epistemic access to its content5. 2. Searching for additional evidence in other Cartesian texts As we have seen, the text in which Descartes presents the notion of material falsehood in the third meditation seems too ambiguous to allow us to determine, on its own, what interpretation of said notion is. that is, whether one of a metaphysical type or 5. Among the defenders of epistemic type positions, Wells 1984 and Nadler 2006 can be mentioned; while Wells bases his argument on the defense of certain historical theses relating to the dependence of Cartesian doctrine on some positions of the immediately preceding scholasticism (in particular, of Suarez), whose correctness is, however, independent of the argumentation based on the internal textual evidence that we intend to develop in this work, Nadler only states his position in passing, in the context of a presentation of the Cartesian theory of ideas, without arguing in favor of it. 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) AN EPISTEMICAL READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 197 epistemic, would be the most appropriate. To try to decide this question, however, it seems that we could make use of at least three other types of additional evidence. That is, we could: (a) analyze other relevant texts in the Cartesian corpus; (b) evaluate the coherence and intelligibility of the proposals themselves, especially when they are put in connection with other Cartesian theses and texts, particularly those referring to some more general relevant notions, such as that of representation; and finally (c) see to what extent each of these conceptions is able to account for the evidence, textual and otherwise, that, prima facie, would seem to favor the alternative conception6. In what follows we are going to deal, in the order in which we have presented them, with these three types of considerations, starting, in the remainder of this section, with the first of them. In the rest of the Cartesian corpus there are, in addition to some loose references (such as in the First Answers, AT VII, 114; IX-1, 91), which do little to help resolve the issue, basically two relevant discussions of the notion of material falsehood: on the one hand, a rather extensive discussion that appears in the fourth series of Objections and Replies that Descartes exchanges with Arnauld and, on the other, a rather brief allusion in the Conversation with Burman. I believe that both texts are, especially if taken as a whole, decisive in favor of an epistemic interpretation of the notion of material falsity. But let's see in order, to show that this is so, what these passages tell us. It is advisable to start at the beginning, that is, with Arnauld's objections. In one of these passages, at the beginning of their second section, which contains objections “On God,” Arnauld | ||
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+ | 6. An additional criterion with respect to which these two types of positions could be evaluated could be whether one of them better fulfills the role that the argumentative structure of the text places on the notion of a materially false idea. However, although it is debatable what that role actually is, I will not consider this question here, since I believe both positions are on equal footing in this regard. | ||
+ | Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
+ | 198 E. ZERBUDIS raises a question about materially false ideas that is particularly interesting given our objectives here, since it clearly presupposes a metaphysical interpretation of the notion of material falsehood. In effect, it is a question that could be translated, using the terminology that we advanced in the previous section, as a question about how the type of relationship between what is presented and what is represented that the notion of falsehood could come to take place. material, understood metaphysically, postulates. Arnauld says: [5] Finally, what does this idea of cold, which you say is materially false, represent to your spirit? A deprivation? Then she is true. A positive being? So she is not the idea of cold (AT VII, 207; IX-1, 161-2). This criticism also presupposes, on the other hand, a quite specific conception of representation that Arnauld takes from the scholastic tradition, according to which the representation of an object by a mind (or, more specifically, by a mental mode, of an idea) is understood in terms of the intentional non-existence of the object represented in the agent's mind. It is also a conception that he believes he has every right to ascribe (with reason, as we will see) to Descartes (indeed, beyond the direct testimonies that we will consider shortly, some central Cartesian theses, such as the introduction of the distinction between formal and objective reality, and the application to the field of ideas of the principle of causal adequacy, would be little intelligible outside of this ideological framework). If this is so, a critique based on such a conception of intentionality would even have the value of an internal critique. That such a conception is in fact presupposed by Arnauld, and that it is what is at the basis of the criticism, is clear, for example, from the following text (which also helps us in the task of making the conception in question explicit) : [6] Well, what is the idea of cold? It is cold itself, as long as it is objectively in the understanding; but if cold is a privation, it could not be objectively in the understanding by an idea whose objective being was a positive being; Therefore, if the cold is only a deprivation, its idea can never be positive, and consequently it will not be able to there is none that is materially false (AT VII, 206; IX-1, 161). That is to say, Arnauld's accusation basically consists of that, if we accept a theory of intentionality such as the one expressed in [6], the notion of a materially false idea, which Arnauld clearly understands here in the manner of the conceptions that we called metaphysical, since It refers to the relationship between what is exhibited by the idea and its object, it is incoherent and, consequently, impossible – in the language of Descartes' French translator, a chimera7. It is very instructive to consider the response that Descartes gives to this criticism: in a very direct way, what he tells Arnauld is that the objection he intends to make is directly inappropriate, since by making it its author shows that he is completely wrong in his appreciation of what is the point of the notion of material falsity. This is clear even before dealing with the objection in detail, from the very moment in which he enumerates, to organize his response, the criticisms made in that series of objections. Descartes says in that context, and then more specifically moving to the topic at hand, what follows: [7] He [Arnauld] deals only with three things in this part [the one dedicated to God], with which one can easily agree as he understands them; but that I took in another sense when I wrote them, a sense that can also be taken as true. The first is that some ideas are materially false; That is to say, according to my sense, that they are such that they give the judgment matter or occasion for error; but he, considering the ideas as taken formally, maintains that there is no falsehood in them (AT VII, 231; IX-1, 179, italics in the original). 7. It is not entirely clear according to which variety of metaphysical position Arnauld interprets the Cartesian notion, although he seems rather to do so in the narrow variant. In any case, it is worth noting that the criticism he makes of the Cartesian notion, based as it is on very general considerations about the notion of representation, would be valid for any of the two varieties of metaphysical conception that we distinguish. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Considering the ideas as taken formally, he maintains that there is no falsehood in them (AT VII, 231; IX-1, 179, italics in the original). 7. It is not entirely clear according to which variety of metaphysical position Arnauld interprets the Cartesian notion, although he seems rather to do so in the narrow variant. In any case, it is worth noting that the criticism he makes of the Cartesian notion, based as it is on very general considerations about the notion of representation, would be valid for any of the two varieties of metaphysical conception that we distinguish. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Considering the ideas as taken formally, he maintains that there is no falsehood in them (AT VII, 231; IX-1, 179, italics in the original). 7. It is not entirely clear according to which variety of metaphysical position Arnauld interprets the Cartesian notion, although he seems rather to do so in the narrow variant. In any case, it is worth noting that the criticism he makes of the Cartesian notion, based as it is on very general considerations about the notion of representation, would be valid for any of the two varieties of metaphysical conception that we distinguish. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
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+ | 200 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 201 It is very clear from this text, first of all, that, according to Descartes, Arnauld misunderstood what was the point he wanted to make by introducing the notion of material falsehood – Indeed, he says twice in a few lines that he understood this notion with a different meaning than the one he wanted to give it ("but which I took in another sense when I wrote...", and also: "...according to my sense ...”, which presupposes a contrast between its meaning and that in which Arnauld takes it). And, secondly, he explicitly says that the meaning that he, Descartes, wanted to give to his notion is, precisely, the one that we had identified as the one corresponding to the epistemic interpretation: “that they are such that they give to judgment matter or occasion of error", that is, they are so obscure and confusing that their content cannot be grasped clearly and that, therefore, as long as we make judgments on the basis of the way in which they appear to us, We will be victims of a propensity to make errors, that is, to formulate judgments that may turn out to be formally false. mind, because the notion of material falsehood, as he understands it, does not concern the foundations of the representative function of ideas considered by themselves8 but, rather, only to the darkness that covers them and that It prevents us from discerning and evaluating the functioning of this representative capacity in some of them (that is, in the terms in which we have been expressing it, here again it defends an epistemic conception of material falsehood). That is, Descartes admits that our idea of cold is nothing more than the cold that is present in our understanding “of the way in which objects are accustomed to being in it” (as expressed in the First Answers, AT VII , 102-3; IX-1, 82), only in the case of cold and other materially false ideas these are too opaque for us to discern precisely what is represented by such ideas. There are several other passages in the Cartesian response that support this reading. But it seems particularly interesting to cite the one in which he directly answers the reproach that Arnauld presented through the text [5]: It should be noted, moreover, that, although what is said in these Fourth Answers, and very particularly what that appears in this text [8], can be made to agree to a good extent with what was said in the third meditation, there are in any case differences of emphasis between these two texts. I mean that in the Answers greater emphasis is placed, in my opinion, on certain aspects of the notion of material falsehood that we could characterize as “functional”: thus, while in the third meditation it seemed to be taken as the central character of the materially false ideas the fact that they were very dark and confusing, From what followed as a consequence that the type or degree of reality of what was represented could not be determined exactly, the response to Arnauld seems to consider the propensity of materially false ideas to give “occasion or material to error” as its central or defining character. This change is what seems to be at the basis of a certain , if it represents a deprivation, then it is true; If a positive being, then she is in no way the idea of cold. What I admit to you; but I only call it false because, being dark and confused, I cannot discern whether it represents to me anything that, outside of my sensation [sentiment; lat: sensum], whether positive or not; This is the reason why I have the opportunity to judge that it is something positive, although perhaps it is nothing more than a simple deprivation (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). We see that here Descartes does two things: on the one hand, he admits the conception of intentionality that, for Arnauld, generated the problem regarding the notion of material falsity understood in a metaphysical sense (remember that in text [7] Descartes admitted that, in the sense in which Arnauld understood the notions involved, what he said was correct); On the other hand, he again expresses, by contrast, that his position is not one that can be attacked on the basis of these doctrines about intentionality, basic- 8. I think that, in speaking here of "ideas taken by themselves" , I allude to the same thing that Descartes alludes to when he says that the problems mentioned by Arnauld concern ideas “taken formally” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). I am not sure what Descartes means by that turn, although the reference to an Aristotelian notion of form seems to suggest something like “what it is to be an idea”, that is, the notion of idea in the strict sense (e.g. opposition to their implementations, accidental characters, etc.). although perhaps it is nothing more than a simple deprivation (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). We see that here Descartes does two things: on the one hand, he admits the conception of intentionality that, for Arnauld, generated the problem regarding the notion of material falsity understood in a metaphysical sense (remember that in text [7] Descartes admitted that, in the sense in which Arnauld understood the notions involved, what he said was correct); On the other hand, he again expresses, by contrast, that his position is not one that can be attacked on the basis of these doctrines about intentionality, basic- 8. I think that, in speaking here of "ideas taken by themselves" , I allude to the same thing that Descartes alludes to when he says that the problems mentioned by Arnauld concern ideas “taken formally” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). I am not sure what Descartes means by that turn, although the reference to an Aristotelian notion of form seems to suggest something like “what it is to be an idea”, that is, the notion of idea in the strict sense (e.g. opposition to their implementations, accidental characters, etc.). although perhaps it is nothing more than a simple deprivation (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). We see that here Descartes does two things: on the one hand, he admits the conception of intentionality that, for Arnauld, generated the problem regarding the notion of material falsity understood in a metaphysical sense (remember that in text [7] Descartes admitted that, in the sense in which Arnauld understood the notions involved, what he said was correct); On the other hand, he again expresses, by contrast, that his position is not one that can be attacked on the basis of these doctrines about intentionality, basic- 8. I think that, in speaking here of "ideas taken by themselves" , I allude to the same thing that Descartes alludes to when he says that the problems mentioned by Arnauld concern ideas “taken formally” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). I am not sure what Descartes means by that turn, although the reference to an Aristotelian notion of form seems to suggest something like “what it is to be an idea”, that is, the notion of idea in the strict sense (e.g. opposition to their implementations, accidental characters, etc.). | ||
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+ | 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) | ||
+ | Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
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+ | 202 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 203 The other text in which the matter at hand is discussed, although in a much briefer way, is, as we said, the Conversation with Burman. Again, what is said there supports the interpretation we are holding. Responding to a question from Burman as to why he said in the third meditation that, “without referring them [the ideas] to anything else, they could hardly give me material for error,” Descartes says the following: increase in the extension, so to speak, of this notion, which will now include, in addition to the ideas of sensation (approximately, those that will be considered in later philosophy as “ideas of secondary qualities”), also to the ideas of certain individuals, such as those of the “gods of idolaters”, and to certain appetites and passions in general, such as the thirst of the dropsic. Now, it seems clear that this development of the notion, originating in the emphasis placed on those functional aspects, would favor an interpretation of an epistemic type: in effect, it seems difficult to suppose that the type of failures in the representative capacities that the Defenders of a metaphysical conception assume definitions of materially false ideas can also take place with respect to these cases: does it make sense to say that the pagan gods, for example, are privations (or, in general, entities in some sense negative), or that the thirst of the dropsic would represent a non-thing – that is, an impossible thing? I think not. On the contrary, it does seem to make sense to say that it is unclear to us what these ideas represent and, even more so, that by virtue of that these ideas give us material for error9. [9] Even if I do not refer my ideas to anything outside myself, there is still room for error, since I can make a mistake in relation to the very nature of the ideas. (...) [10] For example, I can say that whiteness is a quality; and even if I do not refer this idea to anything other than myself – even if I do not say or suppose that there is anything white – I can still make a mistake in the abstract, regarding whiteness itself and its nature or the idea what I have of her (AT V, 152). 9. The text of Descartes' response to Arnauld is very rich and comparatively long (it is the longest discussion on the subject in the entire Cartesian corpus, as far as I can know). It would be cumbersome to try to show it in detail, but I think that everything that is said there is compatible with the interpretation that is being tested here. I would like to show, however, how this is so in relation to a text that has been used to support an alternative interpretation. The text is as follows: Although it is not explicitly stated here that what is described in relation to the ideas involved in these cases is due to their obscurity or confusion, The mention of the “matter for error” in the first of the texts suggests that everything said in [9] refers, in a sufficiently clear way, to the conception of material falsehood that Descartes defended in the Fourth answers. Furthermore: in some sense, it could even be said that it expands what was said there, since it makes it clear here that the error we make in these cases is an error “in relation to the very nature of the idea”, which may well be interpreted in terms of the central idea of the epistemic conception, namely, that the problem with materially false ideas occurs with respect to our (difficult) access to their content. | ||
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+ | And, by the way, I did not confuse the judgment with the idea (...) And when [Arnauld] says that the idea of cold is cold itself insofar as it is objectively in the understanding, I think that a distinction must be used; for it often happens with respect to obscure and confused ideas, among which we must include those of cold and heat, that they refer [qu'elles se rapportent] to things other than those of which they truly are the ideas (AT VII, 233; IX-1, 180). | ||
+ | The text [10], for its part, could be read as endorsing, rather, a metaphysical conception, by suggesting that what is | ||
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+ | This text can be assumed to support a view according to which, at least at some level, representation takes place, in the case of materially false ideas, through, for example, an implicit judgment, or something similar (whatever it is). to the basis of the rapporter action). However, it seems that the passage can receive a fairly | ||
+ | natural from the point of view of the conception defended here: according to this interpretation, referring certain ideas “to things other than those of which they truly are the ideas” would be nothing more than a particular type of effect of the materially false character of certain ideas. , namely, that which consists of making erroneous judgments regarding what they represent, due to the darkness and confusion that characterizes them. 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
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+ | 204 E. ZERBUDIS at play in cases of materially false ideas is some kind of categorical error; But although categorical error may indeed be involved, it is essential to note that nothing that is said makes us suppose that said error originates in the very representative function of the idea, in its nature, but rather that The quote as a whole allows us to assume, on the contrary, that the error derives rather from incorrect judgments that are made, precisely, because these ideas are such that they provide “material for error.” 3. Some difficulties of the metaphysical conception AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 205 In addition to the direct textual evidence that we have just offered, it seems that there is an additional point that plays in favor of the interpretation suggested here, namely, that while The notion of material falsehood that arises from this interpretation seems clear enough and, furthermore, can be formulated in a way that is intelligible by itself and coherent with other Cartesian theses, it is not clear that the same can be said of the interpretations that we have called “metaphysical”. In general, these have, in addition to problems in being expressed in a plausible way, certain difficulties in being able to be integrated with other Cartesian theses and, finally, also textual problems, since it does not seem that they can be converted compatible, through reasonable interpretations, with several passages that explicitly refer to material falsity (several of which we have just seen). We further saw that, strictly speaking, many of these difficulties with metaphysical interpretations of material falsehood had already appeared summarized in Arnauld's criticisms, which, as we pointed out, were directed in particular at a notion of material falsehood understood in this way. physical that has been formulated in the literature. However, it can be shown that some of the paradigmatic proposals that have been made in this sense suffer from problems of this type. To begin with a notable example, it is worth mentioning that Margaret Dauler Wilson has to presuppose, in order for her proposal about how to understand the notion of material falsity to even be formulated, that the Cartesian notion of representation (or perhaps better, of representative capacity of ideas) must be interpreted as a mixed notion, which involves a “presentational” element along with another “referential” element. Now, with respect to one of these notions he admits that “I am not going to pretend that the notion of referential representation is ultimately clear” (Wilson 1990, 74), and then say, with respect to a proposal to understand this last notion In causal terms, it is worth noting, with regard to the first point mentioned, that, at some point or another, The very defenders of metaphysical conceptions of material falsity have to admit that something they are saying, or some notion or distinction they are introducing, is not entirely clear (and, in other cases, although they do not say it themselves, it is equally obvious that this is so). It would exceed the purposes of the present work to carefully analyze each of the meta-type proposals in this regard. Other proposals rather have the problem of how to reconcile what they affirm regarding materially false ideas with other recognized Cartesian doctrines. For example, Martial Gueroult is forced to assume that materially false ideas have an infinitely small degree of objective reality – an idea notoriously lacking a textual basis (Gueroult 1953, 218-9), Lilli Alanen has to assume that What happens in these ideas is that there are certain “implicit judgments” by which the subject would compose complex ideas inappropriately (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown has to assume something similar in relation to her idea that ideas materially False ideas consist of complex ideas in which I refer qualities present in sensation to substances (bodies) in which they cannot inhere (Brown 2008, 208 ff.), and something similar occurs with R. Field, who in a similar spirit suggests that Cases of materially false ideas are cases in which we combine ideas of certain modes with ideas of substances of which they could not be modes (cf. Field 1993, passim); In relation to these last three cases, I do not want to deny that references or judgments 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. [11] In general, I suspect that the explanation in causal terms was influential in Descartes's thinking, even though he was not able to develop it completely, to create a theory immune to counterexamples. Beyond this observation, I am not able to clarify more precisely the hybrid conception of representation that I have attributed to Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76). Lilli Alanen has to assume that what takes place in these ideas is that there are certain “implicit judgments” by which the subject would compose complex ideas inappropriately (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown has to assume something similar in relation to with his idea that materially false ideas consist of complex ideas in which I refer qualities present in sensation to substances (bodies) in which they cannot inhere (Brown 2008, 208 ff.), and something similar happens with R. Field, who in a similar spirit suggests that cases of materially false ideas are cases in which we combine ideas of certain modes with ideas of substances of which they could not be modes (cf. Field 1993, passim); In relation to these last three cases, I do not want to deny that references or judgments 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. [11] In general, I suspect that the explanation in causal terms was influential in Descartes's thinking, even though he was not able to develop it completely, to create a theory immune to counterexamples. Beyond this observation, I am not able to clarify more precisely the hybrid conception of representation that I have attributed to Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76). Lilli Alanen has to assume that what takes place in these ideas is that there are certain “implicit judgments” by which the subject would compose complex ideas inappropriately (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown has to assume something similar in relation to with his idea that materially false ideas consist of complex ideas in which I refer qualities present in sensation to substances (bodies) in which they cannot inhere (Brown 2008, 208 ff.), and something similar happens with R. Field, who in a similar spirit suggests that cases of materially false ideas are cases in which we combine ideas of certain modes with ideas of substances of which they could not be modes (cf. Field 1993, passim); In relation to these last three cases, I do not want to deny that references or judgments 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. [11] In general, I suspect that the explanation in causal terms was influential in Descartes's thinking, even though he was not able to develop it completely, to create a theory immune to counterexamples. Beyond this observation, I am not able to clarify more precisely the hybrid conception of representation that I have attributed to Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76). | ||
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+ | 206 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 207 two to interpret some texts in a completely implausible way. I would like to exemplify the latter again from Wilson's article cited above. It is necessary to take into account, to understand the quote that we will make, that the mixed notion of representation that we saw that Wilson ascribed to Descartes is contrasted by this author with the notion of representation that she ascribes to Arnauld, which would be purely “ presentational” (and which is summarized in his thesis that the idea of cold “is cold itself, as long as it is objectively in the understanding”). Now, since she assumes that this contrast occurs, Wilson has trouble explaining why Descartes accepts, as we saw, what Arnauld says on this issue (cf. text [8] above). He says on this point, then, that “Descartes, rather surprisingly, agrees with the objection” (his emphasis), and then goes on to comment in this way on a fragment of [8]: [12] If Although Descartes seems to abandon his position towards the other here [seems to give away the store here], I think he has simply expressed himself ineptly. He does not really want to retract his position that a particular “positive” feeling counts as the “idea of cold,” even if cold is in fact a deprivation. Despite apparent verbal indications to the contrary, he actually remains on his original path: the sensation of cold referentially represents the cold (...) but does not present the cold as it is” (Wilson 1990, 75) . It seems reasonable to say that, in this case, the interpretation of Descartes' words has been forced in a perhaps excessive way, trying to adapt the spirit of the text (since it is not possible to do so with the letter) to the conception commenter's favorite. It is clear to me, on the other hand, that many of the other metaphysical conceptions also suffer from drawbacks similar to those we saw in the examples considered, although, by the way, I have not shown that this is so, but only I have shown it. suggested from some paradigmatic cases and quotes. In any case, the evidence presented seems sufficient to strongly suggest that what is happening is that these proposals are fundamentally misguided, which in turn can well be understood as additional evidence in favor of the alternative conception defended here. erroneous statements of this type are closely connected with the notion of material falsehood; My point here is only that while it is clearly understood what such errors might consist of if they are taken to take place by (explicit) judgments that are based on the examination of confusing ideas, it is not very well understood how it is that they could have place (implicitly) as an internal function of the ideas themselves – that is, as part of an explanation of their own representative capacities10. In general, As can be seen, these proposals appear in tension with some characteristic theses of Cartesian philosophy; more specifically, with certain theses about the intentionality and origin of the objective reality of ideas and also, perhaps, with the idea that judgments are voluntary acts, and that they are, at least presumably, conscious of necessarily (it is not so clear in any case that this is unequivocally so in Descartes; but the analysis of this question would exceed the objectives of the present work). Eventually, these problems also result in textual problems. In general terms, it is worth saying, with respect to many of the proposals that we have just mentioned, that even though the notions that are appealed to to explain the notion of material falsity undoubtedly play a role in the Cartesian corpus, many of them are never mentioned by Descartes in relation to materially false ideas. And, more particularly, many times those who propose this type of readings are forced to 10. What we say here does not imply denying that ideas can have, in one way or another, contents of a propositional type; On the contrary, it is assumed that they could have them. But at least in the cases of Alanen and Brown, clearly the implicit judgment required must go beyond what is represented in the idea, since it involves the reference of what is represented in the idea to something else. Brown also has problems reconciling his proposal with some general Cartesian theses about intentionality, in particular with the thesis of objective reality as intentional nonexistence, and he admits them in the following passage: Clearly the implicit judgment required must go beyond what is represented in the idea, since it involves the reference of what is represented in the idea to something else. Brown also has problems reconciling his proposal with some general Cartesian theses about intentionality, in particular with the thesis of objective reality as intentional nonexistence, and he admits them in the following passage: Clearly the implicit judgment required must go beyond what is represented in the idea, since it involves the reference of what is represented in the idea to something else. Brown also has problems reconciling his proposal with some general Cartesian theses about intentionality, in particular with the thesis of objective reality as intentional nonexistence, and he admits them in the following passage: | ||
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+ | But given all this, how is it that bodies can be the formal cause of everything that is objectively present in our sensible ideas, that is, a cause that formally has the qualities produced in the effect, when bodies cannot be modified by sensations? This is extremely disconcerting (...) (Brown 2008, 211). | ||
+ | 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) | ||
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+ | 208 E. ZERBUDIS 4. How to interpret prima facie evidence favorable to metaphysical positions AN EPISTEMICAL READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSENESS 209 that cold is nothing more than a deprivation of heat, the idea that represents it to me as something real and positive will not be called false without reason, and so will other similar ideas (AT VII, 43-4; AT IX-1, 34-5). The task does not seem easy, but I believe that the following is a perfectly plausible interpretation of this passage: materially false ideas are dark and confusing ideas that, as such, can give rise, in the subject of which are ideas, to erroneous judgments regarding what is represented in them, that is, according to what is suggested in [1], they can make this subject judge that certain things that are nothing more than chimerical beings are real (up to this point we do not have, certainly, more than a reformulation of the epistemic conception of material falsity). Now, for this subject who judges in this way on the basis of what is presented in an idea of this type, that idea represents, that is, functions in him as the basis for accepting, the content of that judgment that it causes. – for example, the circumstance that something is real, or that a certain situation is possible, even though, if all the evidence provided by the idea were weighed, it may well not be so. That is, such ideas can be the occasion of similar cases of formal falsehood, and, furthermore, they can produce a strong propensity to generate them. This is, I think, what is ultimately said in [2] and [4], when it is said, for example, that these ideas “represent that which is nothing as if it were some thing.” Of course, even if this reading seems plausible enough to me, and even if, on the other hand, I believe that, taking into account the overall evidence, this is the reading that would be most reasonable to support, I do not mean to suggest by saying this that this would be the most reasonable interpretation one could make of [2] and [4] if one encountered these passages in isolation, independently of both their immediate context and the other relevant texts. But, in any case, it seems clear to me that this reading does not imply a very important forcing of the letter of the texts - and, in any case, that it can be said with quite certainty that it implies a much less forcing, at least, than the one that As we saw, Wilson was forced to operate on other Cartesian texts. In the previous two sections, we were accumulating positive evidence in favor of the epistemic conception and negative evidence against the different metaphysical conceptions. However, it remains to be seen whether it would be possible to explain in some way compatible with the epistemic conception the positive evidence that, as we saw, could be alleged in favor of metaphysical conceptions. In what follows we propose, first of all, to reconsider the textual evidence that, As we saw in the first section of this work, it could be argued in favor of this position, to finally move on to evaluate other conceptual and historical reasons that could be argued in favor of this type of conception. Ultimately, we will consider that this evidence is not conclusive in favor of the metaphysical conception. We saw above that, in Descartes' original presentation of the notion of material falsehood in the Third Meditation, about half of the passages supported an epistemic reading, while the other half seemed to suggest a metaphysical reading. Could there be a reading of these last passages according to which this suggestion is deactivated? Let's look at the relevant texts again: [1] As for other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch , they are in my thoughts with such darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things. , or if they only represent me as chimerical beings, which cannot exist. [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; It could also be assumed, finally, that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Could there be a reading of these last passages according to which this suggestion is deactivated? Let's look at the relevant texts again: [1] As for other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch , they are in my thoughts with such darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things. , or if they only represent me as chimerical beings, which cannot exist. [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; It could also be assumed, finally, that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Could there be a reading of these last passages according to which this suggestion is deactivated? Let's look at the relevant texts again: [1] As for other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch , they are in my thoughts with such darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things. , or if they only represent me as chimerical beings, which cannot exist. [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; It could also be assumed, finally, that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 | ||
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+ | 210 E. ZERBUDIS are neither gradual nor epistemic, so, presumably, if material falsehood is a particular case of falsehood, it would have to be assumed that this notion should not be either of these two things either. Now, the notion through which the defender of the epistemic conception intends to analyze it is both a gradual and an epistemic notion. From which it would follow that the analysis in epistemic terms could not be an adequate analysis. The argument seems reasonable, but I think it ultimately rests on a false premise (that material falsehood is a particular type of falsehood). In effect, the conception defended here understands material falsity as a notion functionally (ie, dispositionally) linked to the notion of formal falsity (or falsity, simply), not as a species within that genus (the genus of falsehood), which is the type of relationship between these notions that the objection seems to presuppose, or that in any case would have to be presupposed for it to be effective (while, on the other hand, that functional connection between the notions seems sufficient to justify using the expression 'falsehood' to refer to what concerns us). Now, if this is so, it does not follow from the fact that formal falsity is a non-epistemic, or non-gradual, notion that any functional notion defined in terms of falsity must also be non-gradual and non-gradual. epistemic. In particular, the functional notion of tending to generate formal falsity (that is, the notion through which material falsity is analyzed in this proposal) does not have to inherit such properties from the notion of formal falsity (already one thing may well exhibit a greater tendency to generate falsehoods than another, even when none of those falsehoods is more false than the others). 5. Conclusions. If the argument we deployed in the previous sections is correct, the epistemic interpretation of material falsity is clearly the one that best suits the Cartesian texts11. Qui- 11. There are other aspects of Cartesian considerations on material falsity that would also support an epistemic conception, although 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. 211 It would be like to finish this work by venturing a conjecture about what, in my opinion, could explain the pronounced preference that, in the history of Cartesian interpretation, commentators have had for conceptions of a metaphysical type. I believe that this is nothing other than the very fact that Arnauld has understood the notion, by presenting his objections, in this way. In this sense, his intervention seems to have considerably influenced later commentators. And perhaps even more so, the fact that Descartes himself discusses the questions about the representative properties of the ideas raised by Arnauld has also had an influence in the same sense, even though he makes it clear that this is not particularly relevant to the notion you are interested in. In any case, if we want to understand the notion of material falsity, it seems that the most convenient thing would be to begin to abandon the path opened by Arnauld.12 we have not discussed them in the preceding discussion. A particularly interesting one relates to Descartes' comments regarding the cause of materially false ideas, which would be either nothingness or myself insofar as I have certain defects. Defenders of the metaphysical conception have problems with this thesis, since they have to explain either how something positive (what the idea presents to me) can be caused by something that has zero formal reality, or how something can represent , that is, having a certain (positive) degree of objective reality, even when its cause does not have such a positive degree of formal reality. According to an epistemic conception, on the contrary, these comments can be easily explained, since the fact that ideas are materially false is an effect of their obscurity and confusion, and these properties, as privations of ideas, can be perfectly causally dependent on my own deprivations. | ||
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+ | 12. I would like to thank Rodolfo Biscia, Yamila Buera, Paula Castelli, Federico Li Rosi, Constanza Schaffner and Abel Wajnerman for discussions on the topics discussed in this article in the framework of a reading group on Descartes that took place in 2010. at the Center for Philosophical Research, Buenos Aires. I would also like to thank Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra and, again, Paula Castelli, for their comments on a previous version of this work and for stimulating and varied conversations on topics of modern philosophy over several years. . | ||
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+ | 212 E. ZERBUDIS REFERENCES | ||
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+ | Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) | ||
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+ | THE OWN LIFE OF THE EXPERIMENT. A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AUTONOMY OF EXPERIMENTATION1 | ||
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+ | ALANEN, L. 1994 “Sensory Ideas, Objective Reality, and Material Falsity”, in Cottingham, J. (ed.), Reason, Will and Sensation, Oxford: OUP. | ||
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+ | BEYSSADE, J. 1992 “Descartes on Material Falsity”, in Cummins. G and Zoeller, G. (eds.) Minds, Ideas and Objects: Essays on the Theory of Representation in Modern Philosophy, Atascadero: Ridgeview. | ||
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+ | Romina Zuppone | ||
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+ | BISCIA, R. 2010 “Material falsehood and ideas of sensation: a proposal for demarcation”, unpublished work, read at the XV National Congress of Philosophy, December 6 to 10, 2010, Faculty of Law, UBA, Buenos Aires. University of Buenos Aires Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, Dr. Alejandro Korn Institute of Philosophy | ||
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+ | BOLTON, M 1986 “Confused and Obscure Ideas of Sense”, in Rorty, A. (ed.) Essays on Descartes' Meditations, Berkeley: U. of California Press. | ||
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+ | SUMMARY: The thesis of the autonomy of experimentation is one of the ideas apparently shared within the framework of the epistemological project of new experimentalism. However, neither the status of said thesis nor its interpretation are the subject of consensus. In this work we will try to explain the different forms that this statement takes to later suggest, starting from an analysis of the process of constitution of the experimental results and illustrating it with the study of an experiment, the measurement of the speed of light, how it can be be specified and how to determine what is the scope and limit of the experiment's own life. | ||
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+ | KEYWORDS: experiment, autonomy of experimentation, relationships between theory and experiment, constitution of an experimental result. | ||
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+ | ABSTRACT: The idea that experimentation is autonomous is widely shared among the New Experimentalists. However, it is not precisely stated how we should understand this thesis, or how to interpret it. Consequently, the aim of this paper is to explain the different ways in which the autonomy of experimental thesis could be read, and to suggest, taking into account an analysis of the process by which an experimental result is constituted and exemplifying this process by the means of the study of an experiment, the measurement of the speed of light, how this thesis could be clarified and how to establish its scope and limits. | ||
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+ | 1. This work was carried out within the framework of a doctoral scholarship awarded by the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina. I want to thank Alejandro Cassini, José Antonio Díez Calzada and the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 213-238. | ||
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+ | BROWN, D. 2008 “Descartes on True and False Ideas”, in Broughton J. and Carriero, J. (eds.) A Companion to Descartes, Oxford: Blackwell. | ||
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+ | DE ROSA, R. 2004 “Descartes on Sensory Misrepresentation: The Case of Materially False Ideas”, History of Philosophy Quarterly. | ||
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+ | FIELD, R. 1993 “Descartes on the Material Falsity of Ideas”, Philosophical Review. | ||
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+ | GEWIRTH, A. 1943 “Clearness and Distinctness in Descartes”, Philosophy, reproduced in | ||
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+ | W. Doney, Descartes: A Collection of Critical Essays, Garden City: Doubleday, 1967. | ||
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+ | GUEROULT, M. 1953 Descartes selon l'ordre des raisons, Volume 1, Paris: Aubier. | ||
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+ | KAUFMAN, D. 2000 “Descartes on the Objective Reality of Material-ly False Ideas”, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly. | ||
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+ | NADLER, S. 2006 “The Doctrine of Ideas”, in Gaukroger, S. (ed.) The Blackwell Guide to Descartes' Meditations, Oxford: Blackwell. | ||
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+ | WELLS, N. “Material Falsity in Descartes, Arnauld and Suarez”, Journal of the History of Philosophy. | ||
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+ | WILSON, M. 1978 Descartes, London: Routledge. | ||
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+ | WILSON, M. 1990 “Descartes on the Representationality of Sensation”, Ideas and Mechanism. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1999. | ||
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+ | Received: 10-2011; accepted: 12-2011 | ||
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+ | <span style="color:blue">Ezequiel Zerbudis, "Una lectura epistémica de la falsedad material cartesiana," ''Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofia'' 37, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 188–212. </span> | ||
Como ya anticipamos, la discusión sobre la noción de falsedad material cuenta con una tradición bastante abigarrada, no obstante lo cual, según creo, puede hacerse una taxonomía bastante sencilla de las distintas posiciones defendidas (al menos en tanto se consi- deren sólo sus características más generales). En mi opinión éstas podrían dividirse, del modo más amplio, entre aquellas que po- drían denominarse, siguiendo a Kaufmann (2000), concepciones metafísicas de la falsedad material, y las que cabría llamar, por el contrario, concepciones epistémicas. Básicamente, lo que distingue a estos dos tipos de posiciones es que mientras que las concepciones metafísicas (que han sido claramente mayoritarias en la literatura) definen el contraste entre las ideas materialmente falsas y las que no lo son a partir de diferencias en las propiedades representativas mismas de las ideas, esto es, a partir de las relaciones supuesta- mente diversas que se darían en esos dos casos entre las ideas (entendidas como modos mentales) y sus objetos, las concepciones epistémicas colocan a la base de dichas diferencias, por el contrario, los diversos modos y grados en que los sujetos poseedores de estas ideas podrían llegar a acceder a sus propiedades representativas y, eventualmente, a captar su contenido. Este contraste entre concep- ciones metafísicas y epistémicas es, en nuestra opinión, el más importante a la hora de evaluar las distintas posiciones acerca de cómo entender la falsedad material, por lo que en lo que sigue nos dedicaremos sobre todo a estudiar las ventajas relativas de estos dos tipos de posiciones. | Como ya anticipamos, la discusión sobre la noción de falsedad material cuenta con una tradición bastante abigarrada, no obstante lo cual, según creo, puede hacerse una taxonomía bastante sencilla de las distintas posiciones defendidas (al menos en tanto se consi- deren sólo sus características más generales). En mi opinión éstas podrían dividirse, del modo más amplio, entre aquellas que po- drían denominarse, siguiendo a Kaufmann (2000), concepciones metafísicas de la falsedad material, y las que cabría llamar, por el contrario, concepciones epistémicas. Básicamente, lo que distingue a estos dos tipos de posiciones es que mientras que las concepciones metafísicas (que han sido claramente mayoritarias en la literatura) definen el contraste entre las ideas materialmente falsas y las que no lo son a partir de diferencias en las propiedades representativas mismas de las ideas, esto es, a partir de las relaciones supuesta- mente diversas que se darían en esos dos casos entre las ideas (entendidas como modos mentales) y sus objetos, las concepciones epistémicas colocan a la base de dichas diferencias, por el contrario, los diversos modos y grados en que los sujetos poseedores de estas ideas podrían llegar a acceder a sus propiedades representativas y, eventualmente, a captar su contenido. Este contraste entre concep- ciones metafísicas y epistémicas es, en nuestra opinión, el más importante a la hora de evaluar las distintas posiciones acerca de cómo entender la falsedad material, por lo que en lo que sigue nos dedicaremos sobre todo a estudiar las ventajas relativas de estos dos tipos de posiciones. |
Latest revision as of 09:20, 12 December 2023
Una lectura epistémica de la falsedad material cartesiana[edit]
An epistemic reading of Cartesian material falsehood Ezequiel Zerbudis, "An epistemic reading of Cartesian material falsehood," Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofia 37, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 188–212.
As we already anticipated, the discussion on the notion of material falsity has a quite variegated tradition, however, I believe that a fairly simple taxonomy can be made of the different positions defended (at least as long as only their characteristics are considered). more general). In my opinion, these could be divided, in the broadest way, between those that could be called, following Kaufmann (2000), metaphysical conceptions of material falsity, and those that could be called, on the contrary, epistemic conceptions. Basically, what distinguishes these two types of positions is that while metaphysical conceptions (which have clearly been the majority in the literature) define the contrast between ideas that are materially false and those that are not based on differences in representative properties. of the ideas, that is, from the supposedly diverse relationships that would occur in these two cases between the ideas (understood as mental modes) and their objects, the epistemic conceptions place the basis of said differences, by the On the contrary, the various ways and degrees in which the subjects possessing these ideas could access their representative properties and, eventually, grasp their content. This contrast between metaphysical and epistemic conceptions is, in our opinion, the most important when evaluating the different positions on how to understand material falsity, so in what follows we will dedicate ourselves above all to studying the relative advantages of these two types of positions. Notwithstanding this, it is also worth noting, if only to somehow complete the picture of the situation given here, that metaphysical conceptions could in turn be divided into two groups, namely, those corresponding to conceptions that we could call narrow and broad of material falsehood. A narrow conception is one that would be held by those who believe that certain ideas are materially false by virtue of the fact that there is a certain mismatch or inadequacy between the supposed positive character of what is presented in the idea, on the one hand, and the supposed negative character (ie, privative) of what is represented by it, by the other (from which it would follow that, while the idea of cold would be materially false, that of heat would not be – given the assumption that the Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212
192 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 193 cold is effectively the deprivation of heat). On the other hand, those who defend a broad conception consider that the materially false character of an idea derives from the most general circumstance, of which the one outlined when explaining the narrow notion would be nothing more than a particular case, according to which an idea such a thing would represent “a non-thing as a thing” – which can be read, taking into account the significance of this Cartesian turn, in terms of an idea representing something not possible as if it were possible (thus both the idea of heat such as cold would be (or could be) materially false). [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something [lat: cum non rem tanquam rem repraesentant]. Returning in any case to the main contrast between metaphysical and epistemic conceptions that we want to present here, perhaps a consideration of the main texts on which the defenders of these different types of positions base their positions can help to clarify its nature. The textual evidence, in fact, seems to oscillate, particularly with regard to the original presentation of the notion at hand in the third meditation, between favoring one position or the other. Let us consider the central section of the passage in which Descartes first introduces the notion of material falsity (subdivided for later reference)1: [4] and since, since ideas are images, there can be none that does not seem to us to represent something [lat: quia nullae ideae nisi tanquam rerum esse possunt], if it is correct to say that cold is nothing more than a deprivation of heat, the idea that represents it to me as something real and positive will not be false call without reason, and so on other similar ideas (AT VII, 43-4; AT IX-1, 34-5). [1] As for the other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch, they are in my thought with so much darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things, or if they do not me they represent more than chimerical beings, which cannot exist [lat: an ideae, quas de illis habeo, sint rerum quarundam ideae, an non rerum: or whether the ideas I have of them are ideas of certain things, or of non-things] 2. As I said, the different sections of this text seem to oscillate between supporting a metaphysical or epistemic interpretation of material falsehood. For example, Passages [2] and [4] seem to provide fairly good support for various metaphysical readings; In particular, [2] seems to support a broad metaphysical conception, according to which what is distinctive about materially false ideas is that they represent (types of) states of affairs that are ultimately impossible, as if they were possible. (as maintained, paradigmatically, in the conception defended by Field (1993); I return to this below). Indeed, the distinction between res and non res to which the passage alludes in its Latin version corresponds, as made explicit in the French version (particularly in the way in which this distinction appears towards the end of [1]) , with the contrast between possible entities (res: quelques choses réelles) and impossible ones (non res: êtres chimériques, qui ne peuventexister). In particular, what these ideas would represent as possible is that certain sensory qualities, such as redness or heat, were modes or accidents of corporeal substances; being that this is indeed impossible, since such qualities, in the way in which they are phenomenally given, are not the whole phrase 'non rerum' be the genitive plural of 'non res', a non-thing). The presence of the accusative 'non rem' in the following section makes this second reading slightly preferable, in my opinion. 1. I translate the French version, adding in brackets, when it seems relevant, the Latin text and, when this in turn differs considerably from the French text, also its translation. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; The presence of the accusative 'non rem' in the following section makes this second reading slightly preferable, in my opinion. 1. I translate the French version, adding in brackets, when it seems relevant, the Latin text and, when this in turn differs considerably from the French text, also its translation. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; The presence of the accusative 'non rem' in the following section makes this second reading slightly preferable, in my opinion. 1. I translate the French version, adding in brackets, when it seems relevant, the Latin text and, when this in turn differs considerably from the French text, also its translation. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not;
2. It is not entirely clear to me how the 'non' in the last clause of this passage should be understood; in particular, there seems to be a syntactic ambiguity between assuming that it applies to an elided 'sint', which can be replaced from its explicit presence in the preceding clause, or whether it applies rather to the noun (genitive plural) 'rerum' (so that 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212
194 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 195 more than accidents or modes of a thinking substance and, therefore, sufficiently incongruous with respect to an extended substance to be able to inhere in it. On the other hand, the differences between the two varieties (narrow and broad) that we pointed out above derive from the specific way in which the type of failure in question is explained: in one case, the failure derives from the fact that an idea would present something as possible ( as a res) when in reality it is not (it is a non res); In another, it would be that the idea presents something as positive, when in reality it is not – since it would be nothing more than a deprivation4. [4], for its part, even presenting a more ambiguous wording, seems to give some support to a narrow metaphysical position, according to which, as we saw, the characteristic of materially false ideas would be that they present something that is metaphysically “negative” ( that is, a deprivation) as if it were something positive: in terms of the example presented in this text, what would happen here is that the idea of cold seems to offer the subject a phenomenal character as positive as that presented by the idea of heat (in the sense, I believe, sufficiently intuitive that both are presented in the form of a certain qualitative aspect that is patent and sufficiently distinguishable from others for the subject); As a consequence, if cold is not something positive from an ontological point of view, the idea of cold would be deceptive in a way that the idea of heat would not be – a mode of deception that would be, precisely, that of materially false ideas. Later we will see some difficulties when trying to specify the content of these proposals. Now I would like more
In any case, beyond the variety of metaphysical position in question, the most important thing to note about them, and which consists precisely in what gives them said character, is that what is considered defective, problematic or misleading of materially false ideas would occur at the level of the relationship between what the idea presents and what it represents (to use in this case the terminology of Wilson (1990)): thus, in [2], it is said that certain ideas are materially false "insofar as they represent what is nothing as if it were something" and in [4], speaking of cold as deprivation, it is also said that "the idea that represents it to me as something real and positive will not be called false without reason.” That is, these passages, which apparently always emphasize whether the representative function of the idea is adequately fulfilled or not, seem to suggest that the problem of material falsity is a problem regarding correspondence (or not). between what an idea appears to represent, that is, the type or degree of reality that it exhibits, so to speak, on its surface, on the one hand, and, on the other, the type or degree of reality of that which, in fact, represents3. By TRUE; In the latter case, it is about the adequacy between certain ideas (or, more precisely, certain propositional contents encoded in certain ideas) and certain existing objects, or states of affairs; while here the relationship is not thought of as taking place with something existing (Descartes explicitly says that what interests us in this case are rather ways of being true or false that go beyond the relationship with the existing, AT V, 152 ) but with something real (that is, something that could exist). One of the central problems that metaphysical theories of material falsity have consists precisely, as we will see later, in explaining what this type of correspondence or adaptation could consist of. 3. Note that the notion of correspondence or adequacy involved here is not the traditional one linked to the corresponding definition of the 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 4. As we already said, in the present work We are interested, above all, in analyzing in a global way the contrast between metaphysical and epistemic conceptions, and for this reason we are not going to go into greater detail regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the different variants within these groups of positions. However, it should be noted that the narrow metaphysical conception has obvious and, I believe, insurmountable textual problems, which originate, in particular, in the fact that Descartes himself insistently mentions both cold and heat as materially ideas. false (cf., for example, the text [1] cited above in the text). It is true, on the other hand, that in general positions of the narrow type have not been held in the relevant literature, but at most they have been considered as options that should eventually be discarded (cf. for example Wilson 1978, p. 109; perhaps Arnauld also took this reading into account for the same purposes, see the text below [5]); An exception is that of R. Biscia (cf. his 2010), who defends precisely a conception of the narrow type. Among the defenders of broad metaphysical conceptions we can cite Gewirth 1943, Gueroult 1953, Wilson 1990, Field 1993, Alanen 1994 and Brown 2008; On the other hand, although Bolton 1986, Beyssade 1992, and DeRosa 2004 incorporate epistemic elements in the elaboration of their proposals, the general framework in which they do so remains, in my opinion, a metaphysical one.
Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 196 E. ZERBUDIS draw attention to the fact that the remaining sections of the cited passage point, on the contrary, in another direction, that is, in the direction of 'epistemic' interpretations, as I have called them above, which It is the type of interpretation I am going to defend here. Note that in [3] it is said that “the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether one or the other are real qualities, or whether they are not” (emphasis mine); That is to say, it does not seem that the notion that we want to define in these passages concerns a certain type of specific relationship that would occur between what is presented and what is represented by some ideas, but rather said notion would consist in the fact that, simply, some Such ideas are presented with such a degree of obscurity and confusion that we cannot even access, so to speak, what is “inside” the idea – in particular, we would not have adequate access to these diverse assumptions. - these aspects of it nor, above all, to the relationship of representation or adaptation that would occur between them. An idea would be materially false, then, by virtue of the difficulty it creates for epistemic access to its content5. 2. Searching for additional evidence in other Cartesian texts As we have seen, the text in which Descartes presents the notion of material falsehood in the third meditation seems too ambiguous to allow us to determine, on its own, what interpretation of said notion is. that is, whether one of a metaphysical type or 5. Among the defenders of epistemic type positions, Wells 1984 and Nadler 2006 can be mentioned; while Wells bases his argument on the defense of certain historical theses relating to the dependence of Cartesian doctrine on some positions of the immediately preceding scholasticism (in particular, of Suarez), whose correctness is, however, independent of the argumentation based on the internal textual evidence that we intend to develop in this work, Nadler only states his position in passing, in the context of a presentation of the Cartesian theory of ideas, without arguing in favor of it. 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) AN EPISTEMICAL READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 197 epistemic, would be the most appropriate. To try to decide this question, however, it seems that we could make use of at least three other types of additional evidence. That is, we could: (a) analyze other relevant texts in the Cartesian corpus; (b) evaluate the coherence and intelligibility of the proposals themselves, especially when they are put in connection with other Cartesian theses and texts, particularly those referring to some more general relevant notions, such as that of representation; and finally (c) see to what extent each of these conceptions is able to account for the evidence, textual and otherwise, that, prima facie, would seem to favor the alternative conception6. In what follows we are going to deal, in the order in which we have presented them, with these three types of considerations, starting, in the remainder of this section, with the first of them. In the rest of the Cartesian corpus there are, in addition to some loose references (such as in the First Answers, AT VII, 114; IX-1, 91), which do little to help resolve the issue, basically two relevant discussions of the notion of material falsehood: on the one hand, a rather extensive discussion that appears in the fourth series of Objections and Replies that Descartes exchanges with Arnauld and, on the other, a rather brief allusion in the Conversation with Burman. I believe that both texts are, especially if taken as a whole, decisive in favor of an epistemic interpretation of the notion of material falsity. But let's see in order, to show that this is so, what these passages tell us. It is advisable to start at the beginning, that is, with Arnauld's objections. In one of these passages, at the beginning of their second section, which contains objections “On God,” Arnauld
6. An additional criterion with respect to which these two types of positions could be evaluated could be whether one of them better fulfills the role that the argumentative structure of the text places on the notion of a materially false idea. However, although it is debatable what that role actually is, I will not consider this question here, since I believe both positions are on equal footing in this regard. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 198 E. ZERBUDIS raises a question about materially false ideas that is particularly interesting given our objectives here, since it clearly presupposes a metaphysical interpretation of the notion of material falsehood. In effect, it is a question that could be translated, using the terminology that we advanced in the previous section, as a question about how the type of relationship between what is presented and what is represented that the notion of falsehood could come to take place. material, understood metaphysically, postulates. Arnauld says: [5] Finally, what does this idea of cold, which you say is materially false, represent to your spirit? A deprivation? Then she is true. A positive being? So she is not the idea of cold (AT VII, 207; IX-1, 161-2). This criticism also presupposes, on the other hand, a quite specific conception of representation that Arnauld takes from the scholastic tradition, according to which the representation of an object by a mind (or, more specifically, by a mental mode, of an idea) is understood in terms of the intentional non-existence of the object represented in the agent's mind. It is also a conception that he believes he has every right to ascribe (with reason, as we will see) to Descartes (indeed, beyond the direct testimonies that we will consider shortly, some central Cartesian theses, such as the introduction of the distinction between formal and objective reality, and the application to the field of ideas of the principle of causal adequacy, would be little intelligible outside of this ideological framework). If this is so, a critique based on such a conception of intentionality would even have the value of an internal critique. That such a conception is in fact presupposed by Arnauld, and that it is what is at the basis of the criticism, is clear, for example, from the following text (which also helps us in the task of making the conception in question explicit) : [6] Well, what is the idea of cold? It is cold itself, as long as it is objectively in the understanding; but if cold is a privation, it could not be objectively in the understanding by an idea whose objective being was a positive being; Therefore, if the cold is only a deprivation, its idea can never be positive, and consequently it will not be able to there is none that is materially false (AT VII, 206; IX-1, 161). That is to say, Arnauld's accusation basically consists of that, if we accept a theory of intentionality such as the one expressed in [6], the notion of a materially false idea, which Arnauld clearly understands here in the manner of the conceptions that we called metaphysical, since It refers to the relationship between what is exhibited by the idea and its object, it is incoherent and, consequently, impossible – in the language of Descartes' French translator, a chimera7. It is very instructive to consider the response that Descartes gives to this criticism: in a very direct way, what he tells Arnauld is that the objection he intends to make is directly inappropriate, since by making it its author shows that he is completely wrong in his appreciation of what is the point of the notion of material falsity. This is clear even before dealing with the objection in detail, from the very moment in which he enumerates, to organize his response, the criticisms made in that series of objections. Descartes says in that context, and then more specifically moving to the topic at hand, what follows: [7] He [Arnauld] deals only with three things in this part [the one dedicated to God], with which one can easily agree as he understands them; but that I took in another sense when I wrote them, a sense that can also be taken as true. The first is that some ideas are materially false; That is to say, according to my sense, that they are such that they give the judgment matter or occasion for error; but he, considering the ideas as taken formally, maintains that there is no falsehood in them (AT VII, 231; IX-1, 179, italics in the original). 7. It is not entirely clear according to which variety of metaphysical position Arnauld interprets the Cartesian notion, although he seems rather to do so in the narrow variant. In any case, it is worth noting that the criticism he makes of the Cartesian notion, based as it is on very general considerations about the notion of representation, would be valid for any of the two varieties of metaphysical conception that we distinguish. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Considering the ideas as taken formally, he maintains that there is no falsehood in them (AT VII, 231; IX-1, 179, italics in the original). 7. It is not entirely clear according to which variety of metaphysical position Arnauld interprets the Cartesian notion, although he seems rather to do so in the narrow variant. In any case, it is worth noting that the criticism he makes of the Cartesian notion, based as it is on very general considerations about the notion of representation, would be valid for any of the two varieties of metaphysical conception that we distinguish. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Considering the ideas as taken formally, he maintains that there is no falsehood in them (AT VII, 231; IX-1, 179, italics in the original). 7. It is not entirely clear according to which variety of metaphysical position Arnauld interprets the Cartesian notion, although he seems rather to do so in the narrow variant. In any case, it is worth noting that the criticism he makes of the Cartesian notion, based as it is on very general considerations about the notion of representation, would be valid for any of the two varieties of metaphysical conception that we distinguish. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212
200 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 201 It is very clear from this text, first of all, that, according to Descartes, Arnauld misunderstood what was the point he wanted to make by introducing the notion of material falsehood – Indeed, he says twice in a few lines that he understood this notion with a different meaning than the one he wanted to give it ("but which I took in another sense when I wrote...", and also: "...according to my sense ...”, which presupposes a contrast between its meaning and that in which Arnauld takes it). And, secondly, he explicitly says that the meaning that he, Descartes, wanted to give to his notion is, precisely, the one that we had identified as the one corresponding to the epistemic interpretation: “that they are such that they give to judgment matter or occasion of error", that is, they are so obscure and confusing that their content cannot be grasped clearly and that, therefore, as long as we make judgments on the basis of the way in which they appear to us, We will be victims of a propensity to make errors, that is, to formulate judgments that may turn out to be formally false. mind, because the notion of material falsehood, as he understands it, does not concern the foundations of the representative function of ideas considered by themselves8 but, rather, only to the darkness that covers them and that It prevents us from discerning and evaluating the functioning of this representative capacity in some of them (that is, in the terms in which we have been expressing it, here again it defends an epistemic conception of material falsehood). That is, Descartes admits that our idea of cold is nothing more than the cold that is present in our understanding “of the way in which objects are accustomed to being in it” (as expressed in the First Answers, AT VII , 102-3; IX-1, 82), only in the case of cold and other materially false ideas these are too opaque for us to discern precisely what is represented by such ideas. There are several other passages in the Cartesian response that support this reading. But it seems particularly interesting to cite the one in which he directly answers the reproach that Arnauld presented through the text [5]: It should be noted, moreover, that, although what is said in these Fourth Answers, and very particularly what that appears in this text [8], can be made to agree to a good extent with what was said in the third meditation, there are in any case differences of emphasis between these two texts. I mean that in the Answers greater emphasis is placed, in my opinion, on certain aspects of the notion of material falsehood that we could characterize as “functional”: thus, while in the third meditation it seemed to be taken as the central character of the materially false ideas the fact that they were very dark and confusing, From what followed as a consequence that the type or degree of reality of what was represented could not be determined exactly, the response to Arnauld seems to consider the propensity of materially false ideas to give “occasion or material to error” as its central or defining character. This change is what seems to be at the basis of a certain , if it represents a deprivation, then it is true; If a positive being, then she is in no way the idea of cold. What I admit to you; but I only call it false because, being dark and confused, I cannot discern whether it represents to me anything that, outside of my sensation [sentiment; lat: sensum], whether positive or not; This is the reason why I have the opportunity to judge that it is something positive, although perhaps it is nothing more than a simple deprivation (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). We see that here Descartes does two things: on the one hand, he admits the conception of intentionality that, for Arnauld, generated the problem regarding the notion of material falsity understood in a metaphysical sense (remember that in text [7] Descartes admitted that, in the sense in which Arnauld understood the notions involved, what he said was correct); On the other hand, he again expresses, by contrast, that his position is not one that can be attacked on the basis of these doctrines about intentionality, basic- 8. I think that, in speaking here of "ideas taken by themselves" , I allude to the same thing that Descartes alludes to when he says that the problems mentioned by Arnauld concern ideas “taken formally” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). I am not sure what Descartes means by that turn, although the reference to an Aristotelian notion of form seems to suggest something like “what it is to be an idea”, that is, the notion of idea in the strict sense (e.g. opposition to their implementations, accidental characters, etc.). although perhaps it is nothing more than a simple deprivation (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). We see that here Descartes does two things: on the one hand, he admits the conception of intentionality that, for Arnauld, generated the problem regarding the notion of material falsity understood in a metaphysical sense (remember that in text [7] Descartes admitted that, in the sense in which Arnauld understood the notions involved, what he said was correct); On the other hand, he again expresses, by contrast, that his position is not one that can be attacked on the basis of these doctrines about intentionality, basic- 8. I think that, in speaking here of "ideas taken by themselves" , I allude to the same thing that Descartes alludes to when he says that the problems mentioned by Arnauld concern ideas “taken formally” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). I am not sure what Descartes means by that turn, although the reference to an Aristotelian notion of form seems to suggest something like “what it is to be an idea”, that is, the notion of idea in the strict sense (e.g. opposition to their implementations, accidental characters, etc.). although perhaps it is nothing more than a simple deprivation (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). We see that here Descartes does two things: on the one hand, he admits the conception of intentionality that, for Arnauld, generated the problem regarding the notion of material falsity understood in a metaphysical sense (remember that in text [7] Descartes admitted that, in the sense in which Arnauld understood the notions involved, what he said was correct); On the other hand, he again expresses, by contrast, that his position is not one that can be attacked on the basis of these doctrines about intentionality, basic- 8. I think that, in speaking here of "ideas taken by themselves" , I allude to the same thing that Descartes alludes to when he says that the problems mentioned by Arnauld concern ideas “taken formally” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). I am not sure what Descartes means by that turn, although the reference to an Aristotelian notion of form seems to suggest something like “what it is to be an idea”, that is, the notion of idea in the strict sense (e.g. opposition to their implementations, accidental characters, etc.).
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202 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 203 The other text in which the matter at hand is discussed, although in a much briefer way, is, as we said, the Conversation with Burman. Again, what is said there supports the interpretation we are holding. Responding to a question from Burman as to why he said in the third meditation that, “without referring them [the ideas] to anything else, they could hardly give me material for error,” Descartes says the following: increase in the extension, so to speak, of this notion, which will now include, in addition to the ideas of sensation (approximately, those that will be considered in later philosophy as “ideas of secondary qualities”), also to the ideas of certain individuals, such as those of the “gods of idolaters”, and to certain appetites and passions in general, such as the thirst of the dropsic. Now, it seems clear that this development of the notion, originating in the emphasis placed on those functional aspects, would favor an interpretation of an epistemic type: in effect, it seems difficult to suppose that the type of failures in the representative capacities that the Defenders of a metaphysical conception assume definitions of materially false ideas can also take place with respect to these cases: does it make sense to say that the pagan gods, for example, are privations (or, in general, entities in some sense negative), or that the thirst of the dropsic would represent a non-thing – that is, an impossible thing? I think not. On the contrary, it does seem to make sense to say that it is unclear to us what these ideas represent and, even more so, that by virtue of that these ideas give us material for error9. [9] Even if I do not refer my ideas to anything outside myself, there is still room for error, since I can make a mistake in relation to the very nature of the ideas. (...) [10] For example, I can say that whiteness is a quality; and even if I do not refer this idea to anything other than myself – even if I do not say or suppose that there is anything white – I can still make a mistake in the abstract, regarding whiteness itself and its nature or the idea what I have of her (AT V, 152). 9. The text of Descartes' response to Arnauld is very rich and comparatively long (it is the longest discussion on the subject in the entire Cartesian corpus, as far as I can know). It would be cumbersome to try to show it in detail, but I think that everything that is said there is compatible with the interpretation that is being tested here. I would like to show, however, how this is so in relation to a text that has been used to support an alternative interpretation. The text is as follows: Although it is not explicitly stated here that what is described in relation to the ideas involved in these cases is due to their obscurity or confusion, The mention of the “matter for error” in the first of the texts suggests that everything said in [9] refers, in a sufficiently clear way, to the conception of material falsehood that Descartes defended in the Fourth answers. Furthermore: in some sense, it could even be said that it expands what was said there, since it makes it clear here that the error we make in these cases is an error “in relation to the very nature of the idea”, which may well be interpreted in terms of the central idea of the epistemic conception, namely, that the problem with materially false ideas occurs with respect to our (difficult) access to their content.
And, by the way, I did not confuse the judgment with the idea (...) And when [Arnauld] says that the idea of cold is cold itself insofar as it is objectively in the understanding, I think that a distinction must be used; for it often happens with respect to obscure and confused ideas, among which we must include those of cold and heat, that they refer [qu'elles se rapportent] to things other than those of which they truly are the ideas (AT VII, 233; IX-1, 180). The text [10], for its part, could be read as endorsing, rather, a metaphysical conception, by suggesting that what is
This text can be assumed to support a view according to which, at least at some level, representation takes place, in the case of materially false ideas, through, for example, an implicit judgment, or something similar (whatever it is). to the basis of the rapporter action). However, it seems that the passage can receive a fairly natural from the point of view of the conception defended here: according to this interpretation, referring certain ideas “to things other than those of which they truly are the ideas” would be nothing more than a particular type of effect of the materially false character of certain ideas. , namely, that which consists of making erroneous judgments regarding what they represent, due to the darkness and confusion that characterizes them. 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212
204 E. ZERBUDIS at play in cases of materially false ideas is some kind of categorical error; But although categorical error may indeed be involved, it is essential to note that nothing that is said makes us suppose that said error originates in the very representative function of the idea, in its nature, but rather that The quote as a whole allows us to assume, on the contrary, that the error derives rather from incorrect judgments that are made, precisely, because these ideas are such that they provide “material for error.” 3. Some difficulties of the metaphysical conception AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 205 In addition to the direct textual evidence that we have just offered, it seems that there is an additional point that plays in favor of the interpretation suggested here, namely, that while The notion of material falsehood that arises from this interpretation seems clear enough and, furthermore, can be formulated in a way that is intelligible by itself and coherent with other Cartesian theses, it is not clear that the same can be said of the interpretations that we have called “metaphysical”. In general, these have, in addition to problems in being expressed in a plausible way, certain difficulties in being able to be integrated with other Cartesian theses and, finally, also textual problems, since it does not seem that they can be converted compatible, through reasonable interpretations, with several passages that explicitly refer to material falsity (several of which we have just seen). We further saw that, strictly speaking, many of these difficulties with metaphysical interpretations of material falsehood had already appeared summarized in Arnauld's criticisms, which, as we pointed out, were directed in particular at a notion of material falsehood understood in this way. physical that has been formulated in the literature. However, it can be shown that some of the paradigmatic proposals that have been made in this sense suffer from problems of this type. To begin with a notable example, it is worth mentioning that Margaret Dauler Wilson has to presuppose, in order for her proposal about how to understand the notion of material falsity to even be formulated, that the Cartesian notion of representation (or perhaps better, of representative capacity of ideas) must be interpreted as a mixed notion, which involves a “presentational” element along with another “referential” element. Now, with respect to one of these notions he admits that “I am not going to pretend that the notion of referential representation is ultimately clear” (Wilson 1990, 74), and then say, with respect to a proposal to understand this last notion In causal terms, it is worth noting, with regard to the first point mentioned, that, at some point or another, The very defenders of metaphysical conceptions of material falsity have to admit that something they are saying, or some notion or distinction they are introducing, is not entirely clear (and, in other cases, although they do not say it themselves, it is equally obvious that this is so). It would exceed the purposes of the present work to carefully analyze each of the meta-type proposals in this regard. Other proposals rather have the problem of how to reconcile what they affirm regarding materially false ideas with other recognized Cartesian doctrines. For example, Martial Gueroult is forced to assume that materially false ideas have an infinitely small degree of objective reality – an idea notoriously lacking a textual basis (Gueroult 1953, 218-9), Lilli Alanen has to assume that What happens in these ideas is that there are certain “implicit judgments” by which the subject would compose complex ideas inappropriately (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown has to assume something similar in relation to her idea that ideas materially False ideas consist of complex ideas in which I refer qualities present in sensation to substances (bodies) in which they cannot inhere (Brown 2008, 208 ff.), and something similar occurs with R. Field, who in a similar spirit suggests that Cases of materially false ideas are cases in which we combine ideas of certain modes with ideas of substances of which they could not be modes (cf. Field 1993, passim); In relation to these last three cases, I do not want to deny that references or judgments 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. [11] In general, I suspect that the explanation in causal terms was influential in Descartes's thinking, even though he was not able to develop it completely, to create a theory immune to counterexamples. Beyond this observation, I am not able to clarify more precisely the hybrid conception of representation that I have attributed to Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76). Lilli Alanen has to assume that what takes place in these ideas is that there are certain “implicit judgments” by which the subject would compose complex ideas inappropriately (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown has to assume something similar in relation to with his idea that materially false ideas consist of complex ideas in which I refer qualities present in sensation to substances (bodies) in which they cannot inhere (Brown 2008, 208 ff.), and something similar happens with R. Field, who in a similar spirit suggests that cases of materially false ideas are cases in which we combine ideas of certain modes with ideas of substances of which they could not be modes (cf. Field 1993, passim); In relation to these last three cases, I do not want to deny that references or judgments 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. [11] In general, I suspect that the explanation in causal terms was influential in Descartes's thinking, even though he was not able to develop it completely, to create a theory immune to counterexamples. Beyond this observation, I am not able to clarify more precisely the hybrid conception of representation that I have attributed to Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76). Lilli Alanen has to assume that what takes place in these ideas is that there are certain “implicit judgments” by which the subject would compose complex ideas inappropriately (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown has to assume something similar in relation to with his idea that materially false ideas consist of complex ideas in which I refer qualities present in sensation to substances (bodies) in which they cannot inhere (Brown 2008, 208 ff.), and something similar happens with R. Field, who in a similar spirit suggests that cases of materially false ideas are cases in which we combine ideas of certain modes with ideas of substances of which they could not be modes (cf. Field 1993, passim); In relation to these last three cases, I do not want to deny that references or judgments 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. [11] In general, I suspect that the explanation in causal terms was influential in Descartes's thinking, even though he was not able to develop it completely, to create a theory immune to counterexamples. Beyond this observation, I am not able to clarify more precisely the hybrid conception of representation that I have attributed to Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76).
206 E. ZERBUDIS AN EPISTHEMIC READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSEHOOD 207 two to interpret some texts in a completely implausible way. I would like to exemplify the latter again from Wilson's article cited above. It is necessary to take into account, to understand the quote that we will make, that the mixed notion of representation that we saw that Wilson ascribed to Descartes is contrasted by this author with the notion of representation that she ascribes to Arnauld, which would be purely “ presentational” (and which is summarized in his thesis that the idea of cold “is cold itself, as long as it is objectively in the understanding”). Now, since she assumes that this contrast occurs, Wilson has trouble explaining why Descartes accepts, as we saw, what Arnauld says on this issue (cf. text [8] above). He says on this point, then, that “Descartes, rather surprisingly, agrees with the objection” (his emphasis), and then goes on to comment in this way on a fragment of [8]: [12] If Although Descartes seems to abandon his position towards the other here [seems to give away the store here], I think he has simply expressed himself ineptly. He does not really want to retract his position that a particular “positive” feeling counts as the “idea of cold,” even if cold is in fact a deprivation. Despite apparent verbal indications to the contrary, he actually remains on his original path: the sensation of cold referentially represents the cold (...) but does not present the cold as it is” (Wilson 1990, 75) . It seems reasonable to say that, in this case, the interpretation of Descartes' words has been forced in a perhaps excessive way, trying to adapt the spirit of the text (since it is not possible to do so with the letter) to the conception commenter's favorite. It is clear to me, on the other hand, that many of the other metaphysical conceptions also suffer from drawbacks similar to those we saw in the examples considered, although, by the way, I have not shown that this is so, but only I have shown it. suggested from some paradigmatic cases and quotes. In any case, the evidence presented seems sufficient to strongly suggest that what is happening is that these proposals are fundamentally misguided, which in turn can well be understood as additional evidence in favor of the alternative conception defended here. erroneous statements of this type are closely connected with the notion of material falsehood; My point here is only that while it is clearly understood what such errors might consist of if they are taken to take place by (explicit) judgments that are based on the examination of confusing ideas, it is not very well understood how it is that they could have place (implicitly) as an internal function of the ideas themselves – that is, as part of an explanation of their own representative capacities10. In general, As can be seen, these proposals appear in tension with some characteristic theses of Cartesian philosophy; more specifically, with certain theses about the intentionality and origin of the objective reality of ideas and also, perhaps, with the idea that judgments are voluntary acts, and that they are, at least presumably, conscious of necessarily (it is not so clear in any case that this is unequivocally so in Descartes; but the analysis of this question would exceed the objectives of the present work). Eventually, these problems also result in textual problems. In general terms, it is worth saying, with respect to many of the proposals that we have just mentioned, that even though the notions that are appealed to to explain the notion of material falsity undoubtedly play a role in the Cartesian corpus, many of them are never mentioned by Descartes in relation to materially false ideas. And, more particularly, many times those who propose this type of readings are forced to 10. What we say here does not imply denying that ideas can have, in one way or another, contents of a propositional type; On the contrary, it is assumed that they could have them. But at least in the cases of Alanen and Brown, clearly the implicit judgment required must go beyond what is represented in the idea, since it involves the reference of what is represented in the idea to something else. Brown also has problems reconciling his proposal with some general Cartesian theses about intentionality, in particular with the thesis of objective reality as intentional nonexistence, and he admits them in the following passage: Clearly the implicit judgment required must go beyond what is represented in the idea, since it involves the reference of what is represented in the idea to something else. Brown also has problems reconciling his proposal with some general Cartesian theses about intentionality, in particular with the thesis of objective reality as intentional nonexistence, and he admits them in the following passage: Clearly the implicit judgment required must go beyond what is represented in the idea, since it involves the reference of what is represented in the idea to something else. Brown also has problems reconciling his proposal with some general Cartesian theses about intentionality, in particular with the thesis of objective reality as intentional nonexistence, and he admits them in the following passage:
But given all this, how is it that bodies can be the formal cause of everything that is objectively present in our sensible ideas, that is, a cause that formally has the qualities produced in the effect, when bodies cannot be modified by sensations? This is extremely disconcerting (...) (Brown 2008, 211). 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011)
208 E. ZERBUDIS 4. How to interpret prima facie evidence favorable to metaphysical positions AN EPISTEMICAL READING OF CARTESIAN MATERIAL FALSENESS 209 that cold is nothing more than a deprivation of heat, the idea that represents it to me as something real and positive will not be called false without reason, and so will other similar ideas (AT VII, 43-4; AT IX-1, 34-5). The task does not seem easy, but I believe that the following is a perfectly plausible interpretation of this passage: materially false ideas are dark and confusing ideas that, as such, can give rise, in the subject of which are ideas, to erroneous judgments regarding what is represented in them, that is, according to what is suggested in [1], they can make this subject judge that certain things that are nothing more than chimerical beings are real (up to this point we do not have, certainly, more than a reformulation of the epistemic conception of material falsity). Now, for this subject who judges in this way on the basis of what is presented in an idea of this type, that idea represents, that is, functions in him as the basis for accepting, the content of that judgment that it causes. – for example, the circumstance that something is real, or that a certain situation is possible, even though, if all the evidence provided by the idea were weighed, it may well not be so. That is, such ideas can be the occasion of similar cases of formal falsehood, and, furthermore, they can produce a strong propensity to generate them. This is, I think, what is ultimately said in [2] and [4], when it is said, for example, that these ideas “represent that which is nothing as if it were some thing.” Of course, even if this reading seems plausible enough to me, and even if, on the other hand, I believe that, taking into account the overall evidence, this is the reading that would be most reasonable to support, I do not mean to suggest by saying this that this would be the most reasonable interpretation one could make of [2] and [4] if one encountered these passages in isolation, independently of both their immediate context and the other relevant texts. But, in any case, it seems clear to me that this reading does not imply a very important forcing of the letter of the texts - and, in any case, that it can be said with quite certainty that it implies a much less forcing, at least, than the one that As we saw, Wilson was forced to operate on other Cartesian texts. In the previous two sections, we were accumulating positive evidence in favor of the epistemic conception and negative evidence against the different metaphysical conceptions. However, it remains to be seen whether it would be possible to explain in some way compatible with the epistemic conception the positive evidence that, as we saw, could be alleged in favor of metaphysical conceptions. In what follows we propose, first of all, to reconsider the textual evidence that, As we saw in the first section of this work, it could be argued in favor of this position, to finally move on to evaluate other conceptual and historical reasons that could be argued in favor of this type of conception. Ultimately, we will consider that this evidence is not conclusive in favor of the metaphysical conception. We saw above that, in Descartes' original presentation of the notion of material falsehood in the Third Meditation, about half of the passages supported an epistemic reading, while the other half seemed to suggest a metaphysical reading. Could there be a reading of these last passages according to which this suggestion is deactivated? Let's look at the relevant texts again: [1] As for other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch , they are in my thoughts with such darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things. , or if they only represent me as chimerical beings, which cannot exist. [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; It could also be assumed, finally, that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Could there be a reading of these last passages according to which this suggestion is deactivated? Let's look at the relevant texts again: [1] As for other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch , they are in my thoughts with such darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things. , or if they only represent me as chimerical beings, which cannot exist. [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; It could also be assumed, finally, that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 Could there be a reading of these last passages according to which this suggestion is deactivated? Let's look at the relevant texts again: [1] As for other things, such as light, colors, sounds, smells, flavors, heat, cold, and the other qualities that fall into the domain of touch , they are in my thoughts with such darkness and confusion, that I do not even know if they are true, or false and only apparent, that is, if the ideas that I conceive of these qualities are in fact ideas of some real things. , or if they only represent me as chimerical beings, which cannot exist. [2] Well, even though I have already noted above that true and formal falsehood can only be found in judgments, a certain material falsehood can nevertheless be found in ideas, namely, insofar as they represent what is not nothing as if it were something. [3] For example, the ideas I have of cold and heat are so unclear and distinct that through them I cannot discern whether cold is only a privation of heat, or whether heat is a privation of cold, or whether a and another are real qualities, or if they are not; It could also be assumed, finally, that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212 that there would be considerations of another type that would support, prima facie, a metaphysical interpretation. One of these, mentioned by Alanen (1994, 239), consists of drawing attention to the fact that the notions of truth and falsehood [4] and since, since ideas are images, there cannot be any that do not It seems to us to represent something, if it is correct to say 189-212 Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212
210 E. ZERBUDIS are neither gradual nor epistemic, so, presumably, if material falsehood is a particular case of falsehood, it would have to be assumed that this notion should not be either of these two things either. Now, the notion through which the defender of the epistemic conception intends to analyze it is both a gradual and an epistemic notion. From which it would follow that the analysis in epistemic terms could not be an adequate analysis. The argument seems reasonable, but I think it ultimately rests on a false premise (that material falsehood is a particular type of falsehood). In effect, the conception defended here understands material falsity as a notion functionally (ie, dispositionally) linked to the notion of formal falsity (or falsity, simply), not as a species within that genus (the genus of falsehood), which is the type of relationship between these notions that the objection seems to presuppose, or that in any case would have to be presupposed for it to be effective (while, on the other hand, that functional connection between the notions seems sufficient to justify using the expression 'falsehood' to refer to what concerns us). Now, if this is so, it does not follow from the fact that formal falsity is a non-epistemic, or non-gradual, notion that any functional notion defined in terms of falsity must also be non-gradual and non-gradual. epistemic. In particular, the functional notion of tending to generate formal falsity (that is, the notion through which material falsity is analyzed in this proposal) does not have to inherit such properties from the notion of formal falsity (already one thing may well exhibit a greater tendency to generate falsehoods than another, even when none of those falsehoods is more false than the others). 5. Conclusions. If the argument we deployed in the previous sections is correct, the epistemic interpretation of material falsity is clearly the one that best suits the Cartesian texts11. Qui- 11. There are other aspects of Cartesian considerations on material falsity that would also support an epistemic conception, although 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. 211 It would be like to finish this work by venturing a conjecture about what, in my opinion, could explain the pronounced preference that, in the history of Cartesian interpretation, commentators have had for conceptions of a metaphysical type. I believe that this is nothing other than the very fact that Arnauld has understood the notion, by presenting his objections, in this way. In this sense, his intervention seems to have considerably influenced later commentators. And perhaps even more so, the fact that Descartes himself discusses the questions about the representative properties of the ideas raised by Arnauld has also had an influence in the same sense, even though he makes it clear that this is not particularly relevant to the notion you are interested in. In any case, if we want to understand the notion of material falsity, it seems that the most convenient thing would be to begin to abandon the path opened by Arnauld.12 we have not discussed them in the preceding discussion. A particularly interesting one relates to Descartes' comments regarding the cause of materially false ideas, which would be either nothingness or myself insofar as I have certain defects. Defenders of the metaphysical conception have problems with this thesis, since they have to explain either how something positive (what the idea presents to me) can be caused by something that has zero formal reality, or how something can represent , that is, having a certain (positive) degree of objective reality, even when its cause does not have such a positive degree of formal reality. According to an epistemic conception, on the contrary, these comments can be easily explained, since the fact that ideas are materially false is an effect of their obscurity and confusion, and these properties, as privations of ideas, can be perfectly causally dependent on my own deprivations.
12. I would like to thank Rodolfo Biscia, Yamila Buera, Paula Castelli, Federico Li Rosi, Constanza Schaffner and Abel Wajnerman for discussions on the topics discussed in this article in the framework of a reading group on Descartes that took place in 2010. at the Center for Philosophical Research, Buenos Aires. I would also like to thank Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra and, again, Paula Castelli, for their comments on a previous version of this work and for stimulating and varied conversations on topics of modern philosophy over several years. . Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 188-212
212 E. ZERBUDIS REFERENCES
Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011)
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SUMMARY: The thesis of the autonomy of experimentation is one of the ideas apparently shared within the framework of the epistemological project of new experimentalism. However, neither the status of said thesis nor its interpretation are the subject of consensus. In this work we will try to explain the different forms that this statement takes to later suggest, starting from an analysis of the process of constitution of the experimental results and illustrating it with the study of an experiment, the measurement of the speed of light, how it can be be specified and how to determine what is the scope and limit of the experiment's own life.
KEYWORDS: experiment, autonomy of experimentation, relationships between theory and experiment, constitution of an experimental result.
ABSTRACT: The idea that experimentation is autonomous is widely shared among the New Experimentalists. However, it is not precisely stated how we should understand this thesis, or how to interpret it. Consequently, the aim of this paper is to explain the different ways in which the autonomy of experimental thesis could be read, and to suggest, taking into account an analysis of the process by which an experimental result is constituted and exemplifying this process by the means of the study of an experiment, the measurement of the speed of light, how this thesis could be clarified and how to establish its scope and limits.
1. This work was carried out within the framework of a doctoral scholarship awarded by the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina. I want to thank Alejandro Cassini, José Antonio Díez Calzada and the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions. Latin American Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Spring 2011) 213-238.
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Received: 10-2011; accepted: 12-2011
Ezequiel Zerbudis, "Una lectura epistémica de la falsedad material cartesiana," Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofia 37, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 188–212.
Como ya anticipamos, la discusión sobre la noción de falsedad material cuenta con una tradición bastante abigarrada, no obstante lo cual, según creo, puede hacerse una taxonomía bastante sencilla de las distintas posiciones defendidas (al menos en tanto se consi- deren sólo sus características más generales). En mi opinión éstas podrían dividirse, del modo más amplio, entre aquellas que po- drían denominarse, siguiendo a Kaufmann (2000), concepciones metafísicas de la falsedad material, y las que cabría llamar, por el contrario, concepciones epistémicas. Básicamente, lo que distingue a estos dos tipos de posiciones es que mientras que las concepciones metafísicas (que han sido claramente mayoritarias en la literatura) definen el contraste entre las ideas materialmente falsas y las que no lo son a partir de diferencias en las propiedades representativas mismas de las ideas, esto es, a partir de las relaciones supuesta- mente diversas que se darían en esos dos casos entre las ideas (entendidas como modos mentales) y sus objetos, las concepciones epistémicas colocan a la base de dichas diferencias, por el contrario, los diversos modos y grados en que los sujetos poseedores de estas ideas podrían llegar a acceder a sus propiedades representativas y, eventualmente, a captar su contenido. Este contraste entre concep- ciones metafísicas y epistémicas es, en nuestra opinión, el más importante a la hora de evaluar las distintas posiciones acerca de cómo entender la falsedad material, por lo que en lo que sigue nos dedicaremos sobre todo a estudiar las ventajas relativas de estos dos tipos de posiciones. No obstante esto, vale la pena notar también, aunque más no sea para completar de algún modo el cuadro de situación aquí dado, que las concepciones metafísicas podrían a su vez ser dividi- das en dos grupos, a saber, los correspondientes a concepciones que podríamos llamar estrechas y amplias de la falsedad material. Una concepción estrecha es una que sostendrían quienes creen que ciertas ideas son materialmente falsas en virtud de que se da un cierto desfasaje o inadecuación entre el supuesto carácter positivo de lo presentado en la idea, por una parte, y el supuesto carácter negativo (i.e., privativo) de lo representado por ella, por la otra (de lo que se seguiría que, mientras que la idea de frío sería material- mente falsa, la de calor no lo sería – dada la suposición de que el Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212
192 E. ZERBUDIS UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 193 frío es efectivamente la privación del calor). Por otra parte, quienes defienden una concepción amplia consideran que el carácter mate- rialmente falso de una idea deriva de la circunstancia más general, de la que la reseñada al explicitar la noción estrecha no sería más que un caso particular, según la cual una idea semejante represen- taría “una no cosa como cosa” – lo que puede leerse, teniendo en cuenta la significación de este giro cartesiano, en términos de que una idea representa algo no posible como si fuera posible (con lo que tanto la idea de calor como la de frío resultarían (o podrían resultar) materialmente falsas). [2] Pues, aún cuando haya notado ya más arriba que sólo en los juicios se puede encontrar la falsedad verdadera y formal, se puede sin embargo encontrar en las ideas una cierta falsedad material, a saber, en tanto ellas representan lo que no es nada como si fuera alguna cosa [lat: cum non rem tanquam rem repraesentant]. Volviendo en todo caso al contraste principal entre concepcio- nes metafísicas y epistémicas que queremos presentar aquí, quizás pueda ayudar a esclarecer su naturaleza una consideración de los textos principales en los que los defensores de estos distintos tipos de posiciones basan sus posturas. La evidencia textual, en efecto, parece oscilar, en particular en lo que respecta a la presentación original de la noción que nos ocupa en la tercera meditación, entre favorecer a una u otra postura. Consideremos el trozo central del pasaje en que Descartes introduce por primera vez la noción de fal- sedad material (subdividido para referencias ulteriores)1: [4] y en tanto que, al ser las ideas como imágenes, no puede haber nin- guna que no nos parezca representar alguna cosa [lat: quia nullae ideae nisi tanquam rerum esse possunt], si es correcto decir que el frío no es otra cosa más que una privación del calor, la idea que me lo representa como algo real y positivo no será llamada falsa sin motivo, y así otras ideas semejantes (AT VII, 43-4; AT IX-1, 34-5). [1] En cuanto a las demás cosas, como la luz, los colores, los sonidos, los olores, los sabores, el calor, el frío, y las otras cualidades que caen en el dominio del tacto, ellas están en mi pensamiento con tanta oscuridad y confusión, que incluso ignoro si ellas son verdaderas, o falsas y sola- mente aparentes, es decir, si las ideas que yo concibo de estas cualida- des son en efecto ideas de algunas cosas reales, o bien si ellas no me representan más que seres quiméricos, que no pueden existir [lat: an ideae, quas de illis habeo, sint rerum quarundam ideae, an non rerum: o bien si las ideas que tengo de ellas son ideas de ciertas cosas, o de no cosas]2. Como decía, las distintas secciones de este texto parecen oscilar entre apoyar una interpretación metafísica o epistémica de la false- dad material. Así, por ejemplo, los pasajes [2] y [4] parecen dar bas- tante buen sustento a diversas lecturas metafísicas; en particular, [2] parece respaldar una concepción metafísica amplia, según la cual lo distintivo de las ideas materialmente falsas es que represen- tan (tipos de) estados de cosas que, en última instancia, son impo- sibles, como si fueran posibles (tal como se sostiene, de modo para- digmático, en la concepción defendida por Field (1993); vuelvo sobre esto más abajo). En efecto, la distinción entre res y non res a la que alude el pasaje en su versión latina se corresponde, tal como se explicita en la versión francesa (en particular en el modo en que aparece esta distinción hacia el final de [1]), con el contraste entre entidades posibles (res: quelques choses réelles) e imposibles (non res: êtres chimériques, qui ne peuvent exister). En particular, lo que estas ideas representarían como posible es que ciertas cualidades senso- riales, como el rojo o el calor, fueran modos o accidentes de sustan- cias corpóreas; siendo que esto es en verdad imposible, ya que tales cualidades, en el modo en que se dan fenoménicamente, no son toda la frase ‘non rerum’ sea el genitivo plural de ‘non res’, una no cosa). La presencia del acusativo ‘non rem’ en la sección siguiente hace preferir levemente, en mi opinión, esta segunda lectura. 1. Traduzco la versión francesa, agregando entre corchetes, cuando pa- rezca relevante, el texto latino y, cuando éste difiera a su vez considerable- mente del texto francés, también su traducción. [3] Por ejemplo, las ideas que tengo del frío y del calor son tan poco claras y distintas que mediante ellas no puedo discernir si el frío es solamente una privación del calor, o si el calor una privación del frío, o bien si una y otra son cualidades reales, o si no lo son;
2. No me resulta del todo claro cómo habría que entender el ‘non’ de la última cláusula de este pasaje; en particular, parece haber una ambigüedad sintáctica entre suponer que se aplica a un ‘sint’ elidido, que puede reponerse a partir de su presencia explícita en la cláusula anterior, o si se aplica más bien al sustantivo (en genitivo plural) ‘rerum’ (de modo que 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011)
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194 E. ZERBUDIS UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 195 más que accidentes o modos de una sustancia pensante y, por tanto, suficientemente incongruentes respecto de una sustancia extensa como para poder inherir en ella. otra parte, las diferencias entre las dos variedades (estrecha y amplia) que señalábamos más arriba derivan del modo específico en que se explica el tipo de fallo en cuestión: en un caso, el fallo se deriva de que una idea presentaría algo como posible (como una res) cuando en realidad no lo es (se trata de una non res); en otro, se trataría de que la idea presenta algo como positivo, cuando en rea- lidad no lo es – ya que no sería más que una privación4. [4], por su parte, aún presentando una redacción más ambigua, parece dar cierto sustento a una posición metafísica estrecha, según la cual, como vimos, lo propio de las ideas materialmente falsas sería que presentan algo que es metafísicamente “negativo” (esto es, una privación) como si fuera algo positivo: en términos del ejemplo pre- sentado en este texto, lo que ocurriría aquí es que la idea de frío pare- ce ofrecer al sujeto un carácter fenoménico tan positivo como el que presenta la idea de calor (en el sentido, creo, suficientemente intuitivo de que ambos se presentan bajo la forma de un cierto aspecto cualita- tivo que es patente y suficientemente distinguible de otros para el sujeto); como consecuencia de lo cual, si el frío no es algo positivo desde un punto de vista ontológico, la idea de frío sería engañosa de un modo en que no lo sería la idea de calor – modo de engaño que sería, justamente, el propio de las ideas materialmente falsas. Más adelante veremos algunas dificultades a la hora de intentar precisar el contenido de estas propuestas. Ahora querría más bien
De todos modos, más allá de la variedad de posición metafísica de la que se trate, lo más importante a notar respecto de ellas, y que consiste justamente en aquello que les confiere dicho carácter, es que se considera que lo defectuoso, problemático o engañoso de las ideas materialmente falsas se daría al nivel de la relación entre lo que la idea presenta y lo que ella representa (para usar en este caso la terminología de Wilson (1990)): así, en [2], se dice que ciertas ideas son materialmente falsas “en tanto ellas representan lo que no es nada como si fuera alguna cosa” y en [4], hablando del frío como privación, se dice también que “la idea que me lo representa como algo real y positivo no será llamada falsa sin motivo”. Es decir, estos pasajes, que aparentemente ponen siempre el acento en si la función representativa de la idea se cumple o no de modo ade- cuado, parecen sugerir que el problema de la falsedad material es un problema respecto de la correspondencia (o no) entre lo que una idea parece representar, es decir, el tipo o grado de realidad que exhibe, por así decirlo, en su superficie, por un lado, y, por otro, el tipo o grado de realidad de aquello que, de hecho, representa3. Por
verdad; en éste último caso, se trata de la adecuación entre ciertas ideas (o, más precisamente, ciertos contenidos proposicionales codificados en ciertas ideas) y ciertos objetos, o estados de cosas, existentes; mientras que acá la relación no está pensada como teniendo lugar con algo existente (Descartes dice explícitamente que lo que nos interesa en este caso son más bien modos de ser verdadero o falso que van más allá de la relación con lo existente, AT V, 152) sino con algo real (esto es, algo que podría existir). Uno de los problemas centrales que tienen las teorías metafísicas de la falsedad material consiste justamente, como veremos más adelante, en explicar en qué podría consistir este tipo de correspondencia o adecuación. 3. Nótese que la noción de correspondencia o adecuación involucrada aquí no es la tradicional ligada a la definición correspondentista de la 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 4. Como ya dijimos, en el presente trabajo nos interesa, sobre todo, analizar de una manera global el contraste entre concepciones metafísicas y epistémicas, y por este motivo no vamos a entrar en mayores detalles respecto de las ventajas y desventajas de las distintas variantes al interior de estos grupos de posiciones. Sin embargo, cabe señalar que la concep- ción metafísica estrecha tiene problemas textuales obvios y, creo yo, insu- perables, que se originan, en particular, en que el mismo Descartes men- ciona insistentemente tanto al frío como al calor como ideas materialmente falsas (cf., por ejemplo, el texto [1] citado más arriba en el texto). Es cierto, por otra parte, que en general no se han sostenido en la literatura relevante posiciones del tipo estrecho, sino que a lo sumo se las ha considerado como opciones que eventualmente corresponde descartar (cf. por ejemplo Wilson 1978, p. 109; quizás también Arnauld tuvo en cuenta esta lectura con esos mismos fines, cf. más abajo el texto [5]); una excepción es la de R. Biscia (cf. su 2010), quien defiende justamente una concepción del tipo estrecho. Entre los defensores de concepciones metafísicas amplias se pueden citar a Gewirth 1943, Gueroult 1953, Wilson 1990, Field 1993, Alanen 1994 y Brown 2008; por otra parte, si bien Bolton 1986, Beyssade 1992, y DeRosa 2004 incorporan elementos epistémicos en la elaboración de sus propuestas, el marco general en el que lo hacen sigue siendo, en mi opinión, uno de tipo metafísico.
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196 E. ZERBUDIS llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que las restantes secciones del pasaje citado apuntan, por el contrario, en otra dirección, esto es, en la dirección de interpretaciones ‘epistémicas’, según las he deno- minado más arriba, que es el tipo de interpretación que voy a defender aquí. Nótese que en [3] se dice que “las ideas que tengo del frío y del calor son tan poco claras y distintas que mediante ellas no puedo discernir si el frío es solamente una privación del calor, o si el calor una privación del frío, o bien si una y otra son cualidades rea- les, o si no lo son” (énfasis mío); es decir, no parece que la noción que se quiere deslindar en estos pasajes concierna a un cierto tipo de relación determinada que se daría entre lo presentado y lo representado por algunas ideas, sino más bien dicha noción consis- tiría en que, simplemente, algunas de tales ideas se presentan con tal grado de oscuridad y confusión que no podemos siquiera acce- der, por así decir, a ver lo que hay “adentro de” la idea – en parti- cular, no tendríamos un acceso adecuado a estos supuestos diver- sos aspectos suyos ni, sobre todo, a la relación de representación o de adecuación que se daría entre ellos. Una idea sería materialmen- te falsa, entonces, en virtud de esa dificultad que crea para el acce- so epistémico a su contenido5. 2. Buscando evidencia adicional en otros textos cartesianos Como venimos de ver, el texto en que Descartes presenta la noción de falsedad material en la tercera meditación parece dema- siado ambiguo como para permitirnos determinar, por sí solo, qué interpretación de dicha noción, es decir, si una de tipo metafísico o 5. Entre los defensores de posiciones de tipo epistémico puede mencio- narse a Wells 1984 y a Nadler 2006; mientras que Wells basa su argumen- tación en la defensa de ciertas tesis históricas relativas a la dependencia de la doctrina cartesiana respecto de algunas posiciones de la escolástica inmediatamente anterior (en particular, de Suarez), cuya corrección es, sin embargo, independiente de la argumentación basada en la evidencia textual interna que pretendemos desarrollar en este trabajo, Nadler sólo enuncia su posición de pasada, en el contexto de una presentación de la teoría cartesiana de las ideas, sin argumentar en favor de ella. 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 197 epistémico, sería la más adecuada. Para intentar decidir esta cues- tión, sin embargo, parece que podríamos hacer uso de al menos otros tres tipos de evidencia adicional. Esto es, podríamos: (a) analizar otros textos relevantes en el corpus cartesiano; (b) evaluar la coherencia e inteligibilidad de las propuestas mis- mas, sobre todo cuando son puestas en conexión con otras tesis y textos cartesianos, en particular aquellos referidos a algunas nociones relevantes más generales, tal como la de representación; y finalmente (c) ver hasta qué punto cada una de estas concepciones es capaz de dar cuenta de la evidencia, textual y de otro tipo, que, prima facie, parecería favorecer a la concepción alternativa6. En lo que sigue vamos a ocuparnos, en el orden en que venimos de exponerlos, de estos tres tipos de consideraciones, comenzando, en lo que resta de esta sección, por el primero de ellos. En el resto del corpus cartesiano hay, además de algunas refe- rencias sueltas (como en las Primeras respuestas, AT VII, 114; IX-1, 91), que poco ayudan a dirimir la cuestión, básicamente dos discu- siones relevantes de la noción de falsedad material: por un lado, una discusión bastante extensa que aparece en la cuarta serie de Objeciones y respuestas que Descartes intercambia con Arnauld y, por otro, una alusión más bien breve en la Conversación con Burman. Creo que ambos textos son, sobre todo si se los toma globalmente, decisivos en favor de una interpretación epistémica de la noción de falsedad material. Pero veamos en orden, para mostrar que esto es así, qué nos dicen estos pasajes. Conviene comenzar por el principio, esto es, por las objeciones de Arnauld. En un pasaje de éstas, al comienzo de la segunda sec- ción de las mismas, que contiene objeciones “Sobre Dios”, Arnauld
6. Un criterio adicional respecto del cual podrían ser evaluados estos dos tipos de posiciones podría ser el de si alguno de ellos cumple mejor el papel que la estructura argumental del texto hace recaer en la noción de idea materialmente falsa. Sin embargo, aunque es discutible cuál sea efectivamente ese papel, no voy a considerar esta cuestión aquí, ya que creo ambas posiciones están en un pie de igualdad al respecto. Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212
198 E. ZERBUDIS plantea un interrogante sobre las ideas materialmente falsas que resulta particularmente interesante teniendo en cuenta nuestros objetivos aquí, ya que claramente presupone una interpretación metafísica de la noción de falsedad material. En efecto, se trata de un interrogante que podría traducirse, utilizando la terminología que adelantábamos en la sección anterior, como una pregunta acer- ca de cómo podría llegar a tener lugar el tipo de relación entre lo presentado y lo representado que la noción de falsedad material, entendida de modo metafísico, postula. Dice Arnauld: [5] Finalmente, ¿qué representa a su espíritu esta idea de frío, que Ud. dice que es materialmente falsa? ¿Una privación? Entonces ella es ver- dadera. ¿Un ser positivo? Entonces ella no es la idea de frío (AT VII, 207; IX-1, 161-2). Esta crítica también presupone, por otra parte, una concepción bastante específica de la representación que Arnauld toma de la tradición escolástica, según la cual la representación de un objeto por parte de una mente (o, más específicamente, por parte de un modo mental, de una idea) es entendida en términos de la inexis- tencia intencional del objeto representado en la mente del agente. Se trata además de una concepción que él cree que tiene todo el derecho de adscribir (con razón, como veremos) a Descartes (en efecto, más allá de los testimonios directos que vamos a considerar en breve, algunas tesis cartesianas centrales, tales como la introduc- ción de la distinción entre realidad formal y objetiva, y la aplica- ción al ámbito de las ideas del principio de adecuación causal, serí- an poco inteligibles fuera de este marco ideológico). Si esto es así, una crítica que tome como base semejante concepción de la inten- cionalidad tendría incluso el valor de una crítica interna. Que tal concepción está de hecho presupuesta por Arnauld, y que ella es lo que está a la base de la crítica, queda claro, por ejemplo, a partir del siguiente texto (que además nos ayuda en la tarea de explicitar la concepción en cuestión): [6] Pues, ¿qué es la idea de frío? Es el frío mismo, en tanto que está objetivamente en el entendimiento; pero si el frío es una privación, no podría estar objetivamente en el entendimiento por una idea cuyo ser objetivo fuera un ser positivo; por lo tanto, si el frío es solamente una privación, su idea nunca podrá ser positiva, y en consecuencia no 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 199 podrá haber ninguna que sea materialmente falsa (AT VII, 206; IX-1, 161). Es decir, la acusación de Arnauld consiste básicamente en que, si aceptamos una teoría de la intencionalidad como la expresada en [6], la noción de idea materialmente falsa, que Arnauld entiende aquí claramente al modo de las concepciones que denominábamos metafísicas, ya que está referida a la relación entre lo exhibido por la idea y su objeto, es incoherente y, en consecuencia, imposible – en lenguaje del traductor francés de Descartes, una quimera7. Es muy instructivo considerar la respuesta que Descartes da a esta crítica: de un modo muy directo, lo que le dice a Arnauld es que la objeción que pretende hacer es directamente improcedente, ya que al hacerla su autor muestra que yerra completamente en su apreciación de cuál es el punto de la noción de falsedad material. Esto es claro ya incluso desde antes de tratar en detalle la objeción, desde el mismo momento en que enumera, para organizar su res- puesta, las críticas que se le hacen en esa serie de objeciones. Des- cartes dice en ese contexto, y luego más específicamente pasando al tema que nos ocupa, lo que sigue: [7] Él [Arnauld] trata solamente sobre tres cosas en esta parte [la dedi- cada a Dios], con las que se puede fácilmente estar de acuerdo tal como él las entiende; pero que yo tomaba en otro sentido cuando las escribí, sentido que también puede tomarse como verdadero. La primera es que algunas ideas son materialmente falsas; es decir, de acuerdo con mí sentido, que ellas son tales que dan al juicio materia u ocasión de error; pero él, considerando las ideas como tomadas formal- mente, sostiene que no hay en ellas ninguna falsedad (AT VII, 231; IX- 1, 179, cursivas en el original). 7. No es del todo claro de acuerdo con qué variedad de posición metafísica Arnauld interpreta la noción cartesiana, aunque parece más bien hacerlo en la variante estrecha. De todos modos, vale la pena notar que la crítica que hace a la noción cartesiana, basada como está en consideraciones muy generales acerca de la noción de representación, resultarían válidas para cualquiera de las dos variedades de concepción metafísica que distinguimos. Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212
200 E. ZERBUDIS UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 201 Es muy claro a partir de este texto, en primer lugar, que, según Descartes, Arnauld entendió mal cuál era el punto que él quería hacer al introducir la noción de falsedad material – efectivamente, dice dos veces en unas pocas líneas que entendió esta noción con un sentido distinto al que él quería darle (“pero que yo tomaba en otro sentido cuando escribí...”, y también: “... de acuerdo con mí sentido...”, lo que presupone un contraste entre su sentido y aquél en que lo toma Arnauld). Y, en segundo lugar, dice explícitamente que el sentido que él, Descartes, quería darle a su noción, es, justa- mente, el que nosotros habíamos identificado como el correspon- diente a la interpretación epistémica: “que ellas son tales que dan al juicio materia u ocasión de error”, es decir, que son tan oscuras y confusas que no se puede captar su contenido con claridad y que, por lo tanto, en tanto hagamos juicios sobre la base del modo en que ellas se nos aparecen, seremos víctimas de una propensión a cometer errores, esto es, a formular juicios que podrán resultar ser formalmente falsos. mente, porque la noción de falsedad material, tal como él la entien- de, no concierne a los fundamentos de la función representativa de las ideas consideradas por sí mismas8 sino, más bien, sólo a la oscu- ridad que las recubre y que nos impide discernir y evaluar el fun- cionamiento de esa capacidad representativa en algunas de ellas (esto es, en los términos en que lo venimos expresando, defiende aquí nuevamente una concepción epistémica de la falsedad mate- rial). Es decir, Descartes admite que nuestra idea de frío no es otra cosa más que el frío que está presente en nuestro entendimiento “del modo en que los objetos tienen costumbre de estar en él” (tal como lo expresa en las Primeras respuestas, AT VII, 102-3; IX-1, 82), sólo que en el caso del frío y las demás ideas materialmente falsas estas son demasiado opacas como para que podamos discernir con precisión qué sea aquello representado mediante tales ideas. Hay otros varios pasajes en la respuesta cartesiana que avalan esta lectura. Pero parece particularmente interesante citar aquél en que contesta de modo directo el reproche que Arnauld presentaba mediante el texto [5]: Hay que notar, por lo demás, que, si bien lo que se dice en estas Cuartas respuestas, y muy en particular lo que aparece en este texto [8], puede hacerse concordar en buena medida con lo que se dijo en la tercera meditación, hay de todos modos diferencias de énfasis entre estos dos textos. Me refiero a que en las Respuestas se pone un mayor énfasis, en mi opinión, en ciertos aspectos de la noción de falsedad material que podríamos caracterizar como “funcionales”: así, mientras que en la tercera meditación parecía tomarse como el carácter central de las ideas materialmente falsas el hecho de que fueran muy oscuras y confusas, de lo que se seguía como una con- secuencia que no se pudiera determinar con exactitud el tipo o grado de realidad de lo allí representado, en la respuesta a Arnauld parece considerarse a la propensión de las ideas materialmente fal- sas de dar “ocasión o material a error” como su carácter central o definitorio. Este cambio es lo que parece estar a la base de un cierto [8] Pero el señor Arnauld me pregunta qué me representa [lat: exhibe- at, presenta] esta idea de frío, que yo dije que era materialmente falsa: pues, dice, si ella representa una privación, entonces es verdadera; si un ser positivo, entonces ella no es de ningún modo la idea de frío. Lo que le admi- to; pero yo sólo la llamo falsa porque, siendo oscura y confusa, no puedo discernir si ella me representa alguna cosa que, fuera de mi sen- sación [sentiment; lat: sensum], sea positiva o no; esta es la razón por la que tengo ocasión de juzgar que es algo positivo, aunque quizás no sea más que una simple privación (AT VII, 234; IX-1, 181). Vemos que aquí Descartes hace dos cosas: por un lado, admite la concepción de la intencionalidad que, para Arnauld, generaba el problema respecto de la noción de falsedad material entendida en sentido metafísico (recordemos que en el texto [7] Descartes admi- tía que, en el sentido en que Arnauld entendía las nociones involu- cradas, lo que decía era correcto); por otra parte, vuelve a expresar, por contraste, que su posición no es una que pueda ser atacada sobre la base de estas doctrinas sobre la intencionalidad, básica- 8. Creo que, al hablar aquí de “las ideas tomadas por sí mismas”, aludo a lo mismo a lo que Descartes alude al decir que los problemas menciona- dos por Arnauld conciernen a las ideas “tomadas formalmente” (AT VII, 231, 232; IX-1, 179, 180). No estoy seguro de a qué se refiere Descartes con ese giro, aunque la referencia a una noción de forma de cuño aristotélico parece sugerir algo así como “lo que es ser una idea”, es decir, la noción de idea en sentido estricto (por oposición a sus implementaciones, caracteres accidentales, etc.).
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202 E. ZERBUDIS UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 203 El otro texto en el que se trata el asunto que nos ocupa, aunque de un modo mucho más breve es, como decíamos, la Conversación con Burman. Nuevamente, lo que se dice allí apoya la interpretación que estamos sosteniendo. Respondiendo a una consulta de Burman respecto de por qué dijo en la tercera meditación que, “sin referir- las [a las ideas] a ninguna otra cosa, apenas podrían darme mate- rial para el error”, dice Descartes lo siguiente: incremento en la extensión, por así decir, de esta noción, que va a pasar a incluir ahora, además de las ideas de la sensación (aproxi- madamente, las que van a ser consideradas en la filosofía posterior como “ideas de cualidades secundarias”), también a las ideas de ciertos individuos, como las de los “dioses de los idólatras”, y a ciertos apetitos y pasiones en general, como la sed del hidrópico. Ahora bien, parece claro que este desarrollo de la noción, origi- nado en el énfasis puesto en aquellos aspectos funcionales, favore- cería una interpretación de tipo epistémica: en efecto, parece difícil suponer que el tipo de fallos en las capacidades representativas que los defensores de una concepción metafísica suponen definito- rios de las ideas materialmente falsas puedan tener lugar también respecto de estos casos: ¿tiene sentido decir que los dioses paganos, por ejemplo, son privaciones (o, en general, entidades en algún sentido negativas), o que la sed del hidrópico representaría una no cosa – esto es, una cosa imposible? Creo yo que no. Por el contrario, sí parece tener sentido decir que nos resulta oscuro lo que dichas ideas representen y, más aún, que en virtud de eso dichas ideas nos den material a error9. [9] Aún cuando no refiera mis ideas a ninguna cosa fuera de mí mismo, hay de todos modos materia para el error, puesto que puedo cometer un error en relación con la naturaleza misma de las ideas. (...) [10] Por ejemplo, puedo decir que la blancura es una cualidad; y aún cuando no refiera esta idea a ninguna otra cosa fuera de mí mismo – aún cuando no diga o suponga que hay alguna cosa blanca – puedo de todos modos cometer un error en abstracto, respecto de la blancura misma y su naturaleza o de la idea que tengo de ella (AT V, 152). 9. El texto de la respuesta de Descartes a Arnauld es muy rico y com- parativamente largo (es la discusión más larga sobre el tema en todo el corpus cartesiano, hasta donde puedo saber). Sería engorroso tratar de mostrarlo de manera detallada, pero creo que todo lo que se dice allí es compatible con la interpretación que aquí se está ensayando. Querría mostrar, de todos modos, cómo esto es así en relación con un texto que ha sido utilizado para apoyar una interpretación alternativa. El texto es el si- guiente: Si bien no se dice explícitamente aquí que lo que se describe en relación con las ideas involucradas en estos casos se deba a su oscuridad o confusión, la mención de la “materia para el error” en el primero de los textos hace suponer que todo lo dicho en [9] remi- te, de un modo suficientemente claro, a la concepción de la false- dad material que Descartes defendía en las Cuartas respuestas. Más aún: en algún sentido, podría incluso decirse que amplía lo dicho allí, ya que deja aquí en claro que el error que cometemos en estos casos es un error “en relación con la naturaleza misma de la idea”, lo que puede perfectamente ser interpretado en términos de la idea central de la concepción epistémica, a saber, que el problema con las ideas materialmente falsas tiene lugar respecto de nuestro acce- so (dificultoso) a su contenido.
Y, por cierto, no confundí el juicio con la idea (...) Y cuando [Arnauld] dice que la idea de frío es el frío mismo en tanto que está objetivamente en el entendimiento, pienso que hay que usar una distinción; pues ocurre a menudo respecto de las ideas oscuras y confusas, entre las que hay que incluir las del frío y el calor, que ellas se refieren [qu’elles se rapportent] a cosas distintas de aquellas de las que son verdaderamente las ideas (AT VII, 233; IX-1, 180).
El texto [10], por su parte, podría ser leído como avalando, más bien, una concepción de tipo metafísico, al sugerir que lo que está
Puede suponerse que este texto apoya una concepción según la cual, al menos a cierto nivel, la representación tiene lugar, para el caso de las ideas materialmente falsas, mediante, por ejemplo, un juicio implícito, o algo semejante (lo que sea que esté a la base de la acción de rapporter). Sin embargo, parece que el pasaje puede recibir una interpretación bastante
natural desde el punto de vista de la concepción aquí defendida: según esta interpretación, el referir ciertas ideas “a cosas distintas de aquellas de las que son verdaderamente las ideas” no sería más que un tipo particular de efecto del carácter materialmente falso de ciertas ideas, a saber, aquél que consiste en hacer juicios erróneos respecto de lo representado por ellas, debido a la oscuridad y confusión que las caracteriza. 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212
204 E. ZERBUDIS en juego en los casos de ideas materialmente falsas es algún tipo de error categorial; pero si bien el error categorial puede estar efecti- vamente involucrado, es esencial notar que nada de lo que se dice nos hace suponer que dicho error se origine en la función represen- tativa misma de la idea, en su naturaleza, sino que más bien la cita en su conjunto permite suponer, por el contrario, que el error deri- va más bien de juicios incorrectos que se hacen, justamente, porque esas ideas son tales que dan “materia para el error”. 3. Algunas dificultades de la concepción metafísica UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 205 Además de la evidencia textual directa que venimos de ofrecer, pareciera que hay un punto adicional que juega en favor de la interpretación aquí sugerida, a saber, que mientras que la noción de falsedad material que surge de esta interpretación parece sufi- cientemente clara y, además, puede ser formulada de un modo que resulta inteligible por sí mismo y coherente con otras tesis cartesia- nas, no queda claro que pueda decirse lo mismo de las interpreta- ciones que hemos denominado “metafísicas”. De modo general, estas tienen, además de problemas para poder ser expresadas de un modo que resulte plausible, ciertas dificultades para poder ser integradas con otras tesis cartesianas y, finalmente, también proble- mas textuales, ya que no parece que se las pueda volver compati- bles, mediante interpretaciones razonables, con varios pasajes que se refieren de modo explícito a la falsedad material (varios de los cuales venimos de ver). Vimos además que, en rigor, muchas de estas dificultades de las interpretaciones metafísicas de la falsedad material ya habían aparecido compendiadas en las críticas de Arnauld, las que, como señalamos, estaban dirigidas en particular a una noción de falsedad material entendida de este modo. físico que ha sido formulada en la literatura. Sin embargo, sí puede mostrarse que algunas de las propuestas paradigmáticas que se han realizado en este sentido adolecen de problemas de este tipo. Para comenzar por un ejemplo notorio, vale la pena mencionar que Margaret Dauler Wilson tiene que presuponer, para que su pro- puesta acerca de cómo entender la noción de falsedad material pueda siquiera ser formulada, que la noción cartesiana de repre- sentación (o quizás mejor, de capacidad representativa de las ideas) debe ser interpretada como una noción mixta, que involucra un elemento “presentacional” junto a otro “referencial”. Ahora bien, respecto de una de estas nociones admite que “no voy a pretender que la noción de representación referencial es en última instancia clara” (Wilson 1990, 74), para luego decir, respecto de una propues- ta para entender esta última noción en términos causales, que Vale la pena notar, en lo que respecta al primer punto mencio- nado, que, en algún momento u otro, los mismos defensores de concepciones metafísicas de la falsedad material tienen que admitir que algo de lo que están diciendo, o alguna noción o distinción que están introduciendo, no resulta del todo clara (y, en otros casos, aunque ellos mismos no lo digan, es igualmente notorio que esto es así). Excedería los propósitos del presente trabajo analizar deteni- damente en este respecto cada una de las propuestas de tipo meta- Otras propuestas tienen más bien el problema de cómo conciliar lo que afirman respecto de las ideas materialmente falsas con otras doctrinas cartesianas reconocidas. Por ejemplo, Martial Gueroult se ve forzado a suponer que las ideas materialmente falsas tienen un grado infinitamente pequeño de realidad objetiva – una idea noto- riamente carente de base textual (Gueroult 1953, 218-9), Lilli Ala- nen tiene que suponer que lo que tiene lugar en estas ideas es que hay ciertos “juicios implícitos” mediante los que el sujeto compon- dría ideas complejas inadecuadamente (Alanen 1994, 244), Deborah Brown tiene que suponer algo semejante en relación con su idea de que las ideas materialmente falsas consisten en ideas complejas en las que refiero cualidades presentes en la sensación a sustancias (cuerpos) en que no pueden inherir (Brown 2008, 208 ss.), y algo similar ocurre con R. Field, quien en un espíritu semejante sugiere que los casos de ideas materialmente falsas son casos en que com- binamos las ideas de ciertos modos con las ideas de sustancias de las que no podrían ser modos (cf. Field 1993, passim); en relación con estos tres últimos casos, no quiero negar que referencias o jui- 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212 [11] En general, sospecho que la explicación en términos causales fue influyente en el pensamiento de Descartes, aún cuando éste no fue capaz de desarrollarla de modo completo, de crear una teoría inmune a contraejemplos. Más allá de esta observación, no soy capaz de clarificar más precisamente la concepción híbrida de la representación que he atribuido a Descartes (Wilson 1990, 76).
206 E. ZERBUDIS UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 207 dos a interpretar algunos textos de un modo completamente implausible. Querría ejemplificar esto último nuevamente a partir del artículo de Wilson citado más arriba. Es preciso tener en cuen- ta, para comprender la cita que haremos, que la noción mixta de representación que vimos que Wilson adscribía a Descartes es con- trastada por esta autora con la noción de representación que ella adscribe a Arnauld, que sería puramente “presentacional” (y que se resume en su tesis de que la idea de frío “es el frío mismo, en tanto que está objetivamente en el entendimiento”). Ahora bien, dado que ella supone que se da este contraste, Wilson tiene proble- mas para explicar por qué Descartes acepta, como vimos, lo que Arnauld dice sobre esta cuestión (cf. el texto [8] más arriba). Dice sobre este punto, entonces, que “Descartes, de modo más bien sor- prendente, esta de acuerdo con la objeción” (énfasis suyo), para pasar luego a comentar de este modo un fragmento de [8]: [12] Si bien Descartes parece abandonar su posición frente al otro aquí [seems to give away the store here], creo que simplemente se ha expresado de manera inepta. No quiere realmente retractar su posición de que una sensación particular “positiva” cuenta como la “idea de frío”, aún si el frío es de hecho una privación. A pesar de indicaciones verbales aparentes en contrario, realmente él se mantiene en su vía original: la sensación de frío representa referencialmente al frío (...) pero no pre- senta al frío tal como es” (Wilson 1990, 75). Parece razonable decir que, en este caso, se ha forzado de un modo quizás excesivo la interpretación de las palabras de Descar- tes, tratándose de amoldar el espíritu del texto (ya que no es posi- ble hacerlo con la letra) a la concepción favorita de la comentadora. Me resulta claro, por otra parte, que muchas de las demás concep- ciones metafísicas adolecen también de inconvenientes similares a los que vimos en los ejemplos considerados, si bien, por cierto, no he mostrado que esto es así, sino que sólo lo he sugerido a partir de algunos casos y citas paradigmáticos. De todos modos, los indicios presentados parecen suficientes para sugerir fuertemente que lo que ocurre es que dichas propuestas están desencaminadas de un modo fundamental, lo que a su vez bien puede entenderse como evidencia adicional en favor de la concepción alternativa aquí defendida. cios erróneos de este tipo estén íntimamente conectados con la noción de falsedad material; mi punto aquí es sólo que mientras que se entiende claramente en qué podrían consistir tales errores si se los toma como teniendo lugar mediante juicios (explícitos) que están basados en el examen de ideas confusas, no se entiende muy bien cómo es que ellos podrían tener lugar (implícitamente) como una función interna de las ideas mismas – esto es, como parte de una explicación de sus propias capacidades representativas10. En gene- ral, como se puede ver, estas propuestas aparecen en tensión con algunas tesis características de la filosofía cartesiana; más específi- camente, con ciertas tesis acerca de la intencionalidad y el origen de la realidad objetiva de las ideas y también, quizás, con la idea de que los juicios son actos voluntarios, y que son, al menos presumi- blemente, conscientes de modo necesario (no es tan claro de todos modos que esto sea inequívocamente así en Descartes; pero el aná- lisis de esta cuestión excedería los objetivos del presente trabajo). Eventualmente, estos problemas redundan también en proble- mas textuales. De modo general cabe decir, respecto de muchas de las propuestas que venimos de mencionar, que por más que las nociones a las que se apela para explicar la noción de falsedad material cumplen indudablemente un papel en el corpus cartesiano, muchas de ellas no son nunca mencionadas por Descartes en rela- ción con las ideas materialmente falsas. Y, más en particular, muchas veces quienes proponen este tipo de lecturas se ven forza- 10. Lo que decimos aquí tampoco implica negar que las ideas puedan tener, de un modo u otro, contenidos de tipo proposicional; por el contra- rio, es de suponer que podrían tenerlos. Pero al menos en los casos de Alanen y de Brown, claramente el juicio implícito requerido debe ir más allá de lo representado en la idea, ya que se trata de la referencia de eso representado en la idea a otra cosa. Brown también tiene inconvenientes para conciliar su propuesta con algunas tesis cartesianas generales sobre la intencionalidad, en particular con la tesis de la realidad objetiva como inexistencia intencional, y los admite en el siguiente pasaje:
Pero dado todo esto, ¿cómo es que los cuerpos pueden ser la causa formal de todo lo que está presente de manera objetiva en nuestras ideas sensibles, esto es, una causa que tiene formalmente las cualidades producidas en el efecto, cuando los cuerpos no pueden ser modificados por sensaciones? Esto es extre- madamente desconcertante (...) (Brown 2008, 211).
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208 E. ZERBUDIS 4. Cómo interpretar la evidencia prima facie favorable a las posiciones metafísicas UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 209 que el frío no es otra cosa más que una privación del calor, la idea que me lo representa como algo real y positivo no será llamada falsa sin motivo, y así otras ideas semejantes (AT VII, 43-4; AT IX-1, 34-5). La tarea no parece fácil, pero creo que la siguiente es una inter- pretación perfectamente plausible de este pasaje: las ideas material- mente falsas son ideas oscuras y confusas que, en tanto tales, pue- den dar lugar, en el sujeto del que son ideas, a juicios erróneos respecto de lo representado en ellas, esto es, según lo que se sugiere en [1], pueden hacerle juzgar a este sujeto que ciertas cosas que no son más que seres quiméricos son reales (hasta aquí no tenemos, por cierto, más que una reformulación de la concepción epistémica de la falsedad material). Ahora bien, para este sujeto que juzga de ese modo sobre la base de lo presentado en una idea de este tipo, esa idea representa, esto es, funciona en él como la base para acep- tar, el contenido de ese juicio que ella ocasiona – por ejemplo, la cir- cunstancia de que algo es real, o de que cierta situación es posible, aun cuando, si se sopesara toda la evidencia proporcionada por la idea, bien podría no serlo. Esto es, dichas ideas pueden ser la oca- sión de casos semejantes de falsedad formal, y, más aún, pueden producir una fuerte propensión a generarlos. Esto es, creo, lo que se dice en última instancia en [2] y en [4], cuando se dice, por ejemplo, que estas ideas “representan lo que no es nada como si fuera alguna cosa”. Por supuesto, aún cuando esta lectura me resulta suficiente- mente plausible, y aun cuando, por otra parte, crea que, tomando en cuenta la evidencia global, esta es la lectura que resultaría más razonable sostener, no pretendo sugerir al decir esto que esta sería la interpretación más razonable que uno podría hacer de [2] y [4] si uno se encontrara con estos pasajes aisladamente, con independen- cia tanto de su contexto inmediato como de los demás textos rele- vantes. Pero, de todos modos, me parece claro que esta lectura no implica un forzamiento muy importante de la letra de los textos – y, en todo caso, que puede decirse con bastante seguridad que implica un forzamiento mucho menor, al menos, que el que, según vimos, Wilson se veía forzada a operar sobre otros textos cartesianos. En las dos secciones previas, estuvimos acumulando evidencia positiva en favor de la concepción epistémica y evidencia negativa en contra de las distintas concepciones metafísicas. Sin embargo, resta aún por ver si sería posible explicar de algún modo compati- ble con la concepción epistémica la evidencia positiva que, según vimos, podía alegarse en favor de las concepciones metafísicas. En lo que sigue nos proponemos, en primer lugar, reconsiderar la evi- dencia textual que, según vimos en la primera sección de este tra- bajo, podía aducirse en favor de dicha posición, para pasar final- mente a evaluar otros motivos de orden conceptual e histórico que podrían alegarse en favor de este tipo de concepciones. En última instancia, consideraremos que dicha evidencia no resulta conclu- yente en favor de la concepción metafísica. Vimos más arriba que, en la presentación original que Descartes hace de la noción de falsedad material en la tercera meditación, aproximadamente la mitad de los pasajes respaldaban una lectura epistémica, mientras que la otra mitad parecía sugerir una lectura metafísica. ¿Podría darse una lectura de estos últimos pasajes según la cual esta sugerencia resulte desactivada? Volvamos a ver los textos relevantes: [1] En cuanto a las demás cosas, como la luz, los colores, los sonidos, los olores, los sabores, el calor, el frío, y las otras cualidades que caen en el dominio del tacto, ellas están en mi pensamiento con tanta oscuri- dad y confusión, que incluso ignoro si ellas son verdaderas, o falsas y solamente aparentes, es decir, si las ideas que yo concibo de estas cua- lidades son en efecto ideas de algunas cosas reales, o bien si ellas no me representan más que seres quiméricos, que no pueden existir. [2] Pues, aún cuando haya notado ya más arriba que sólo en los juicios se puede encontrar la falsedad verdadera y formal, se puede sin embargo encontrar en las ideas una cierta falsedad material, a saber, en tanto ellas representan lo que no es nada como si fuera alguna cosa. [3] Por ejemplo, las ideas que tengo del frío y del calor son tan poco claras y distintas que mediante ellas no puedo discernir si el frío es solamente una privación del calor, o si el calor una privación del frío, o bien si una y otra son cualidades reales, o si no lo son; Podría también suponerse, finalmente, que habría consideracio- nes de otro tipo que avalarían, prima facie, una interpretación meta- física. Una de estas, mencionada por Alanen (1994, 239), consiste en llamar la atención acerca de que las nociones de verdad y falsedad [4] y en tanto que, al ser las ideas como imágenes, no puede haber nin- guna que no nos parezca representar alguna cosa, si es correcto decir 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212
210 E. ZERBUDIS no son ni graduales ni epistémicas, con lo que, presumiblemente, si la falsedad material es un caso particular de falsedad, habría que suponer que esta noción tampoco debería ser ninguna de estas dos cosas. Ahora bien, la noción mediante la que el defensor de la con- cepción epistémica pretende analizarla es una noción tanto gradual como epistémica. De lo que se seguiría que el análisis en términos epistémicos no podría ser un análisis adecuado. El argumento parece razonable, pero creo que en última instancia se asienta en una premisa falsa (la de que la falsedad material es un tipo particu- lar de falsedad). En efecto, la concepción aquí defendida entiende la falsedad material como una noción funcionalmente (i.e., disposi- cionalmente) vinculada con la noción de falsedad formal (o false- dad, a secas), no como una especie dentro de ese género (el género de la falsedad), que es el tipo de relación entre estas nociones que la objeción parece presuponer, o que en todo caso tendría que pre- suponerse para que ella fuera efectiva (al tiempo que, por otra parte, esa conexión funcional entre las nociones parece suficiente para justificar que se utilice la expresión ‘falsedad’ para referirse a la que nos ocupa). Ahora bien, si esto es así, del hecho de que la fal- sedad formal sea una noción no epistémica, o no gradual, no se sigue que cualquier noción funcional definida en términos de la fal- sedad tenga que ser también no gradual y no epistémica. En parti- cular, la noción funcional de propender a generar falsedad formal (esto es, la noción mediante la cual se analiza en esta propuesta la de fal- sedad material) no tiene por qué heredar tales propiedades de la noción de falsedad formal (ya una cosa bien puede exhibir una mayor tendencia a generar falsedades que otra, aún cuando ningu- na de esas falsedades sea más falsa que las otras). 5. Conclusiones. Si la argumentación que desplegamos en las secciones anterio- res es correcta, la interpretación epistémica de la falsedad material es claramente la que mejor se adecua a los textos cartesianos11. Qui- 11. Hay otros aspectos de las consideraciones cartesianas sobre la fal- sedad material que apoyarían también una concepción epistémica, aunque 189-212 Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) UNA LECTURA EPISTÉMICA DE LA FALSEDAD MATERIAL CARTESIANA 211 siera terminar este trabajo aventurando una conjetura sobre lo que, en mi opinión, podría explicar la preferencia pronunciada que, en la historia de la interpretación cartesiana, han tenido los comenta- ristas por concepciones de tipo metafísico. Creo que ello no es otra cosa que el hecho mismo de que Arnauld ha entendido la noción, al presentar sus objeciones, de este modo. En este sentido, su inter- vención parece que ha influido de modo considerable a los comen- taristas posteriores. Y quizás aún más que esto haya tenido tam- bién una influencia en idéntico sentido el hecho de que el mismo Descartes discuta las cuestiones acerca de las propiedades repre- sentativas de las ideas planteadas por Arnauld, por más que deja en claro que eso no es particularmente relevante para la noción que le interesa. En todo caso, si queremos comprender la noción de fal- sedad material, parece que lo más conveniente sería comenzar a abandonar el camino abierto por Arnauld.12 no los hemos tratado en la discusión precedente. Uno particularmente interesante se relaciona con los comentarios de Descartes respecto de la causa de las ideas materialmente falsas, que habría de ser, o bien la nada, o bien yo mismo en tanto que tengo ciertos defectos. Los defensores de la concepción metafísica tienen problemas con esta tesis, ya que tienen que explicar, o bien como algo positivo (lo que me presenta la idea) puede ser causado por algo que tiene realidad formal nula, o bien cómo es que algo puede representar, esto es, tener cierto grado (positivo) de realidad objetiva, aún cuando su causa no tenga tal grado positivo de realidad formal. De acuerdo con una concepción epistémica, por el contrario, esos comentarios se pueden explicar fácilmente, ya que el ser materialmente falsas de las ideas es un efecto de su oscuridad y confusión, y esas propie- dades, en tanto privaciones de las ideas, pueden perfectamente depender causalmente de mis propias privaciones.
12. Querría agradecer a Rodolfo Biscia, Yamila Buera, Paula Castelli, Federico Li Rosi, Constanza Schaffner y Abel Wajnerman por discusiones sobre los temas tratados en el presente artículo en el marco de un grupo de lectura sobre Descartes que se desarrolló durante el año 2010 en el Centro de Investigaciones Filosóficas, Buenos Aires. También querría agradecer a Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra y, nuevamente, a Paula Castelli, por sus co- mentarios a una versión previa de este trabajo y por estimulantes y varia- das conversaciones sobre temas de filosofía moderna a lo largo de ya va- rios años.
Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011) 188-212
212 E. ZERBUDIS REFERENCIAS
Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía, Vol. XXXVII No 2 (Primavera 2011)
LA VIDA PROPIA DEL EXPERIMENTO. UN ANÁLISIS CRÍTICO DE LA AUTONOMÍA DE LA EXPERIMENTACIÓN1
ALANEN, L. 1994 “Sensory Ideas, Objective Reality, and Material Falsity”, en Cottingham, J. (ed.), Reason, Will and Sensation, Oxford: OUP.
BEYSSADE, J. 1992 “Descartes on Material Falsity”, en Cummins. G y Zoeller, G. (eds.) Minds, Ideas and Objects: Essays on the Theory of Representation in Modern Philosophy, Atascadero: Ridgeview.
Romina Zuppone
BISCIA, R. 2010 “Falsedad material e ideas de la sensación: una pro- puesta de demarcación”, trabajo inédito, leído en el XV Congre- so Nacional de Filosofía, 6 al 10 de diciembre de 2010, Facultad de Derecho, UBA, Buenos Aires. Universidad de Buenos Aires Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Instituto de Filosofía Dr. Alejandro Korn
BOLTON, M 1986 “Confused and Obscure Ideas of Sense”, en Rorty, A. (ed.) Essays on Descartes’ Meditations, Berkeley: U. of California Press.
RESUMEN: La tesis de la autonomía de la experimentación es una de las ideas aparentemente compartidas en el marco del proyecto epistemológico del nuevo experimentalismo. Sin embargo, ni el estatus de dicha tesis, ni su interpretación son objeto de consenso. Intentaremos en este trabajo explicitar las diferentes formas que adopta esta afirmación para posteriormente sugerir, partiendo de un análisis del proceso de constitución de los resultados experimentales e ilus- trándolo con el estudio de un experimento, la medición de la velocidad de la luz, cómo puede precisarse y cómo determinar cuál es el alcance y el límite de la vida propia del experimento.
PALABRAS CLAVE: experimento, autonomía de la experimentación, relacio- nes entre teoría y experimento, constitución de un resultado experimental.
ABSTRACT: The idea that experimentation is autonomous is widely shared amongst the New Experimentalists. However, it is not precisely stated how we should understand this thesis, or how to interpret it. In consequence, the aim of this paper is to explicate the different ways in which the autonomy of experiment thesis could be read, and to suggest, taking into account an analysis of the process by which an experimental result is constituted and exemplifying this process by the means of the study of an experiment, the measurement of the speed of light, how this thesis could be clarified and how to establish its scope and limits.
1. Este trabajo se realizó en el marco de una beca doctoral otorgada por el Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) de Argentina. Quiero agradecer a Alejandro Cassini, a José Antonio Díez Calzada y a los evaluadores anónimos por sus comentarios y sugerencias.
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WILSON, M. 1978 Descartes, Londres: Routledge.
WILSON, M. 1990 “Descartes on the Representationality of Sensation”, Ideas and Mechanism. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1999.
Recibido: 10-2011; aceptado: 12-2011
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